Rohillas, 1860s

 

A Rohilla warrior, serving in Nizam of Hyderabad's irregular forces, 1860 (c). Photo by Hooper and Western.

 In 1868 the irregular army of Nizam of Hyderabad (largest Princely State) consisted of Arabs, Sikhs, Sindhis, Balochs and Rohillas, and numbered about 29,000.

Portraits of Pashtuns made at Jallandhar in 1860. Selections from Toor collection.

Paintings from an album called "The people of Punjab" drawn by Sanee the 'Draftman' (a native Hindoo) from Jullunder, 1860. Toor Collection.
Source: Toor Collection.

Check "In Pursuit of Empire: Treasures from the Toor Collection of Sikh Art" by Davinder Toor.

A Pashtun of Jalandhar (Punjab, India) and a wandering Punjabi Khatri, 1860. Original caption: ‘Old Pathan of Jalundhur & Wandering Kuthree’

A Rohilla Afghan (clad in blue) and a Punjabi Jat at Jalandhar, 1860. Note: Jat peasants of rural Punjab typically wore a loincloth with a sheet on their shoulders. Gujjar herders are depicted similarly. Other groups such as Potoharis, Sikhs, Brahmans, and Syeds are shown well-dressed in this collection.

A Pashtun horseman of Kabul at Jalandhar (Punjab), 1860. ‘Kabul’ here refers to the region, not only the city.

Residents of Chach-Hazara, 1860. The Chach territory (Attock district) has a large Pashtun and Hindko-speaking Pathan population. Pashto is still spoken in parts of Chach.

A Pashtun horseman of Kabul at Jalandhar, 1860. Again, ‘Kabul’ refers to the wider region.

Kabulis in Jalandhar, Punjab, 1860. From the album The People of Punjab. The artist captured fine details—note the prayer mark on the forehead of the elder, and a possible Hazara figure on the left.

‘Kupooree Pathan’ with shield and sword at Jalandhar, 1860. Kapuri is located in Ambala district, Haryana.

Pashto was spoken in Rampur of Uttar Pradesh as late as 1815

Pashto was spoken in Rampur region of Uttar Pradesh as late as 1815 AD. This was reported by Mountsuart Elphinstone in his book "the account of kingdom of Cabul" which was published in 1815. Elphinstone had visited Afghanistan in 1808 as ambassdor of British East India Company and met Shah Shuja Durrani in Peshawar. He collected information about Afghans and Afghanistan in the years between 1808 and 1815. He also had knowledge about Rohillas and Rohilkhand since he had spent some time in the Nageena town of Rohilkhand. In his book he writes:

" "The residence of the Nabob (Nawab) is at Rampur, the manner of which place still resemble those of the Berdooraunees (Bar-Durranis). Pushtoo is the principal language, and one sees in the square before the Nabob's place, fair, strong, and handsome young men, sitting or lounging on beds, with that air of idleness and independence which distinguishes the Eusofzyes (Yousafzais)." ["An Account of the Kingdom of Caubul", p-351]

The Nawab of Rampur at that time was Ahmad Ali Khan. The term 'Bar-Durrani' (Bar means upper in Pashto) in the above passage refers to Yousafzais.  This title bestowed by Ahmad Shah Abdali upon the Yousafzais, Ghoria Khels, Khattaks and some other eastern Pashtun tribes.

Yousafzais had begun to settle in large numbers in Rampur and other regions of Rohilkhand in early decades of 18th century. They preserved the language and culture of Pashtuns to great extent in the first half of 19th century.

Death of the Rohilla Chief (Hafiz Rahmat Khan Barech) while fighting soldiers of the British East India Company during the Rohilla War of 1773 to 1774. From "Alden's Oxford Monthly Illustrated Journal", Volumes 2-3, 1871

Mounstuart Elphinstone

Rohillas, Berar (in Hyderabad Deccan), 1861

Rohillas, Berar (in Hyderabad Deccan), 1861. 

Source: "The People of India" by Watson and Kaye (published in 1874) . 

The author of the above-mentioned book writes: "Rohillas are Afghans who have emigrated from their native country, and taken service with H.H. the Nizam's government, or with individuals..[….]. In 1845–6 General Fraser, Resident at Hyderabad, induced the Nizam's government to discharge Rohillas from its service. Great numbers of them were collected at Hyderabad, and dispatched to the frontier under military escort; but most of them returned, having no means of reaching Afghanistan. Berar, the northern frontier province of the Nizam's dominions, was their point of rendezvous for many years; but few remain there now, except those who have adopted peaceable habits and occupations. One of those represented in the Photograph, an old man, has settled near Oomrawutty, and the other is a jemadar in the Berar regular police. Rohillas in the Deccan have for the most part merged into the general Mussulman population, and not unfrequently contract local marriages. They do not differ in any way as to habits and food from the ordinary Mussulmans of the country."

Nawabs of Rampur

Kalb Ali Khan, Nawab of Rampur, 1880 (c). Photo by Bourne & Shepherd. Source

The Nawabs of Rampur were descendants of Ali Muhammad Khan Rohilla (died in 1748). It is generally acknowledged that Ali Muhammad Rohilla was not Pashtun by birth. He was a Hindu Indian boy (Jat, Ahir or Rajput) adopted as son by Daud Khan (a mercenary from Pakhtunkhwa). However all the 18th century sources refer to Ali Muhammad Khan and his sons as "Afghan" (Pashtun) and "Rohilla" (Pashtun) which indicate that Ali Muhammad Khan and his sons identified as Pashtuns , spoke Pashto and had Pashtun manners and customs. Anandram Mukhlis who saw Ali Muhammad Khan Rohilla in 1743, describes him as a man of medium height with a fair complexion, blooming face and open forehead, about forty years old, but looking youthful and dauntlessly brave. 

In 1815 Mountstuart Elphinstone noted that Pashto was still spoken in Rampur. In late 19th and 20th century the Nawabs of Rampur, now fully Indianized, began to claim Syed ancestry. 

The Nawabs of Rampur were known for their fine aesthetic taste and preservation of ancient history. One of the dynasty's greatest accomplishments was the founding of the Rampur Raza Library: retaining one of India's largest collections of Arabic and Persian historical documents.

Hamid Ali Khan Bahadur, Nawab of Rampur, 1903. Source

Source

Source

Rohilla of Bareilly, 1861

 

"Pathan, Mahomedan of Afghan descent, Bareilly", 1861. 

Source: "The People of India" by Watson and Kaye. 

The author of the above-mentioned book writes: "The Mahomedans of India are divided into four general classes without distinction by creed; namely, Syud, Sheikh, Moghul, and Pathan. Of these the two first are the most numerous and most ancient, the Syuds claiming to be the descendants of Mahomed, through Fatima his daughter, and the Sheikhs constituting the remainder of those professing Mahomedanism, who formed the great bulk of the people. Pathans as well as Moghuls are Syuds and Sheikhs; but a clannish and exclusive spirit has, in the main, kept them separate. The Moghuls are the descendants of those immigrants into India who followed the Tartar and Toorky invasions and dynasties, and who always constituted large proportions of the Imperial armies; and the Pathans belong to the races of Afghans who, the original Mahomedan invaders of India, founded many dynasties of kings and emperors of Delhi, and gradually formed colonies in many portions of the country. Bareilly is the capital of the province of Rohilkund, and the term is derived from Rohilla, an appellation which attaches itself to all Afghans, most particularly to the inhabitants of the passes into Afghanistan, and their neighbours the tribes inhabiting the country to the north-west of the Punjab, who were doubtless the progenitors of those of Rohilkund. During the continuance of the several Afghan or Pathan dynasties of Delhi, the Rohillias or Pathans attained very considerable local influence, and settled themselves in the fertile provinces below the Himalaya range, and in particular near Bareilly, the provinces around which were eventually called Rohilkund. From this locality the Imperial armies were constantly recruited, while the ranks of the Afghan settlers were as constantly augmented by emigrants from the original tribes. It was a body of this Pathan cavalry which accompanied Allah-ood-deen to the Deccan in 1310, and established the Mahomedan power there; and when the first Bahmuny dynasty of the Deccan was founded by Hassan Gungoo, himself of Afghan descent, his victories over the Imperial troops sent to reduce him, were mainly attributable to the fidelity and bravery of the Afghan or Rohilla cavalry, which then constituted the main body of his army. From that period the Pathans settled in the Deccan, and in the kingdoms which eventually grew out of the Bahmuny dynasty, rose to considerable power. It was, however, in Rohilcund only, that they attained for a short time an independent government. On the breaking up of the Mogul empire of Delhi, consequent upon the incursions of the Mahrattas and its own inherent weakness, the Rohillas of Rohilcund, under their chieftain Hafiz Rehmat-oolla-khan, defied the power of the Nawab Wuzeer, of Oude, and assisted by the Mahrattas, attained a local power which he could not subdue. This led to a British force being employed for the purpose under a treaty between Mr. Warren Hastings and the Nawab of Oude, in 1773; and in 1774, the Rohilla chieftain was defeated and slain in action, and the independent power of the Rohillas or Pathans ceased. 

Since then the Pathan power, in the north-west provinces, has never been revived; and although Ameer Khan, of Tonk, and a few other military chiefs of the old Mogul dynasty, succeeded in retaining their estates amidst the troubled period which attended the final extinction of the empire of Delhi, neither there, nor in the south of India, have the Pathans attained any permanent power, though the native Mahomedan armies, especially the cavalry, have been mainly recruited from these tribes, and to the present time our own irregular cavalry, in all parts of India, is for the most part composed of them. The Pathans are a warlike race, and make brave and hardy soldiers, but they are somewhat impatient of control, and it is difficult to render them fully amenable to discipline. They have rarely entered the infantry portion of the native army, and are best fitted for cavalry soldiers or irregular levies, such as the police. They have not mixed with the ordinary Mahomedan population of India, and have, by marrying exclusively into their own Afghan tribes, preserved a peculiar and eminently national character. Many of them are very fair, and have the grey or blue eye of the parent stock, with brown hair. Their women are described to be very handsome; but they are, if possible, more jealously guarded than any other of the Mahomedans. 

The Pathans, besides being soldiers, are dealers in horses, as well as breeders of them to a great extent. They are also bankers and money-lenders, not objecting, on religious grounds, to taking usurious interest. They are often successful administrators of provinces under native Governments, but in such positions are not unfrequently violent and cruel. Among the tribes are found many dissenters from the orthodox faith: not a few of them are Shiahs, and others believers in the "Ghyr Mehdavee " doctrines, which recognise a further revelation by a prophet who is to appear hereafter. 

Wherever Pathan dynasties have existed in India, their architectural remains are of a magnificent character. At Delhi and Agra, at Beejapoor, at Mandoo and Boorhanpoor, ruins of palaces, mosques, and mausoleums attest the magnificence of their founders; but it is by then noble fortifications, as well in their scientific strength of construction, as in the picturesque character of their architectural embellishments, that they are perhaps most prominently distinguished throughout India."

Death of the Rohilla Chief (Hafiz Rahmat Khan Barech) while fighting soldiers of the British East India Company during the Rohilla War of 1773 to 1774

Death of the Rohilla Chief (Hafiz Rahmat Khan Barech) while fighting soldiers of the British East India Company during the Rohilla War of 1773 to 1774. 

From "Alden's Oxford Monthly Illustrated Journal", Volumes 2-3, 1871.

Ghulam Qadir Rohilla did not force the Mughal princesses to dance for him ; Allama Iqbal made a blunder in his poem.

There is a poem of Allama Iqbal by name of "Ghulam Qadir Rohilla" in Banga-i-Dara, the English translation of which, done by Iqbalurdu blog, is given below:

How cruel, tyrant and vindictive the Ruhilah was

He blinded the Mughal Emperor with the point of his dagger

The tyrant ordered members of the royal household to dance
This tyranny was no less than the Judgment Day’s signal

For the delicate ladies of the royal household it was

Utterly impossible to comply with this shameless order

Ah!

The merciless one made them the means of pleasure
Whose beauty had been veiled from sun’s, moon’s and stars

The feeble hearts were throbbing, the feet were forced to move
A river of blood was flowing from the wet eyes of the princesses

For some time his eyes remained thus absorbed in seeing
In confusion he freed his head from the load of Mighfar

He untied the deadly, fire‐spitting sword from the waist
Whose sharpness was a source of luminescence to the stars

He put the dagger in front, and lied down in some thought
Sleep was demanding rest from the red eyes so to say

The water of sleep extinguished the embers of his eyes
The tyrant’s sight became ashamed of the painful spectacle!

He got up and started saying this to Taimur’s household
“You should have no complaint against your fate”

My sleeping in the couch was a mere show, an affectation
Because stupor is foreign to the dignity of fighters

It was my intention that some daughter of Taimur
Considering me unconscious might kill me with my own dagger,

But at last this secret has dawned to the whole world
Concern for honor has departed from Taimur’s household.”

Ghulam Qadir Rohilla forced Mughal princes (males), not princesses, to sing and dance for him. Allama Iqbal made a blunder there. It does not make sense that Ghulam Qadir would mock Mughal princesses for not possessing courage, ghairat and manliness. Allama Iqbal has misquoted the contemporary source Ibrat-nama (written in c.1790 AD), the author of which writes regarding the incident as follows:

"On the 25th Zil Qada, Ghulam Qadir called Prince Akbar, Suleiman Shikoh, and the other Princes, nineteen in number, before him, and with harsh words called upon them to sing and dance before him. They declined ; but he would not listen to them, saying that he had long heard praises of their singing and dancing. He then commanded his attendants to cut of the Princes' noses if they did not sing. The princes and boys, seeing there was no escaping from his commands, did as they were directed, and sang and danced. He was very pleased and asked them what recompense they desired. They said, "Our father and children are in great want of water and food, we ask for some". He gave his consent. He then turned all his attendants out of the room, and, placing his head upon the knees of Prince Akbar, went to sleep, leaving his sword and knife in their presence. He closed his eyes for an hour, and then getting up, he slapped each of them on the neck, and said, "Can such (craven) spirits entertain the idea of reigning? I wanted to try your courage. If you had any spirit, you would have made an end of me with my sword and dagger. " Then abusing them in foul disgusting words, he sent them out of his presence." (Translation of an extract of Ibrat-nama by S.M.Elliot).

Allama Iqbal

 

Zabita Ganj mosque of Delhi, built in 18th century by Zabita Khan Rohilla

 

Zabita Ganj mosque of Delhi, built in 18th century by Zabita Khan Rohilla (Yousafzai Pashtun). The latter was son of Najib al-Dawla and father of Ghulam Qadir Rohilla.

The mosque is still in use. The mosque is still in use. It is a protected structure under Archeological Survey of India.

Portrait of Zabita Khan Rohilla

Portrait of Nawab Zabita Khan, the Amir al-Umara of Mughal empire, made in c.1770 by Mihr Chand.

Zabita Khan was son of Najib al-Dawla (Yousafzai Pashtun) and father of Ghulam Qadir Rohilla. 

Source: https://asia.si.edu/object/S1986.416/

Sikhs adopted blue coloured dress towards the end of 17th century in the memory and honour of a group of Pashtuns

A group of blue-clad Pashtuns left a lasting impression on Guru Gobind Singh (1666-1708). According to Siyar-ul-Mutakherin, once when Guru Gobind Singh (the founder of Khalsa) found it difficult to cross the territory of Sirhind, he hired Afghan (Pashtun) mountaineers in the vicinity of Sirhind to escort him to his family and promised gold for doing so. Those Afghan mountaineers engaged him to let grow his whiskers and beard to certain length, and they dressed him in blue in the style of the Afghans of that region. They escorted him with perfect safety and honour. Whenever any one asked who he was, they would answer that he was a Pirzada of theirs. It left a great impression on Guru Gobind Singh and he retained the Afghan garb in memory of that event, and he even made it henceforth the distinctive garb of his followers. He also directed his followers to grow their hair and beard. [See "Seir ul-Mutaqherin" (completed in 1780), English translation, vol-1, p-91].

The Rohillas (Indo-Afghans) usually wore blue-coloured dress in India. The author of "The people of India" (1868-1875) writes: "The "Rohilla" costume in the Deccan is a blue cotton shirt, white or blue drawers, and white, red, or blue turban, with a blue quilted jacket for cold weather."

This tradition is understandably not reported by Sikh writers of Runjeet Singh times because the Khalsa in 18th and early 19th century regarded Pashtun Muslims as their enemies and would have this tradition best forgotten. 

Banda Singh Bairagi (an anti-Muslim fanatic) attempted to suppress the blue-coloured dress [1], may be because he was irked by the fact that it was adopted in memory and honour of Muslim Pashtuns. Banda Singh had suffered defeats at the hands an Orakzai Pashtun [2] as well as an Indo-Afghan of Kasur.

Portrait of Phula Singh Akali, 1850 (c).

Rohilla men, c1850. British Libray

A Bangash Pashtun in blue dress, c.1827-1843. By Imam Bakhsh Lahori, Illustrations des Mémoires du général Claude-Auguste Court, Lahore. Source

Afghans of Jalalabad dressed in blue, 1842's painting. Source

"Ruhela Pathan Seized by Jat" By Sanee, Company School, c1870-80. Source

Amir Khan of Tonk

Amir Khan Pindari, circa 1790-1800. By Vana Bhatti.

The ruling family of Tonk (Rajasthan, India) were descendants of Salarzai Bunerwals . In the reign of Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah (r.1719-1748), one Taleh Khan son of Kale Khan (طالع خان بن کالے خان) left his home in the Jowar village of Buner country (Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan)) and took service in Rohilkhand (U.P, India) with Ali Muhammad Khan Rohilla [Ref. Amir-nama, c.1824, Eng. Translation, p-7].

"Taleh Khan's son, Haiyat Khan, became possessed of some landed property in Moradabad, and to him in 1768 was born Amir Khan, the founder of the Tonk State. Beginning life as a petty mercenary leader, he rose in 1798 to be the commander of a large army in the service of Jaswant Rao Holkar, and was employed in the campaigns against Sindhia, the Peshwa, and the British, and in assisting to levy the contributions exacted from Rajputana and Malwa. It was one of the terms of the union between Amir Khan and Holkar that they should share equally in all future plunder and conquest, and accordingly in 1798 Amir Khan received the district of Sironj. To this Tonk and Pirawa were added in 1806, Nimbahera in 1809, and Chhabra in 1816. On the entrance of the British into Malwa, Amir Khan made overtures to be admitted to protection; but the conditions he proposed were too extravagant to be acceded to. He received, however, the offer of a guarantee of all the lands he held under grants from Holkar, on condition of his abandoning the predatory system, disbanding his army of fifty-two battalions of disciplined infantry and a numerous body of Pathan cavalry, and surrendering his artillery, with the exception of forty guns, to the British at a valuation. His request to be confirmed in lands obtained from different Rajput States under every circumstance of violence and extortion was positively rejected. To these terms Amir Khan agreed, and they were embodied in a treaty in November, 181 7. To the territories thus guaranteed (the five districts above mentioned) the fort and pargana of Rampura, now called Aligarh, were added by the British Government as a free grant, and a loan of 3 lakhs, afterwards converted into a gift, was made to him. Nawab Amir Khan died in 1834. [Imperial gazetteer of India, Vol.23, pp.48-49]

A common misunderstanding regarding Amir Khan of Tonk was the assumption that he was a Pindari. This is not correct because he was the leader of a trained army while the Pindaris, on the other hand, accompanied the Marhatta army as scouts.

A portrait of Amir Khan of Tonk (r.1806-1834) on a dappled horse, with an escort. Watercolour painting, Jodhpur, ca.1820 (made). Victoria and Albert Museum

Daud Khan Rohilla

Daud Khan was a slave of Shah Alam Badalzai. The latter was grandson of an Afghan saint Shaikh Shahab-ud-din Badalzai (Badalzai is sub-tribe of Barech) from the village Pushim of Shorawak district of Kandahar. Shaikh Shahab-ud-din Badalzai had left Shorawak and settled in the village of Toru Shahamatpur (Mardan). Sometime in the reign of Bahadur Shah (1707-1712) Daud, the slave, ran away from his master Shah Alam, to seek his fortune in Hindustan. He found his way into Katehr . There he became leader of a band consisting of two hundred men and entered into the service of a Hindu Rajput zamindar, Mudar Shah of Madkar of Sarkar Budaon. As was usual those days, the neighboring zamindars were continually at warfare with each other. Once Daud was sent against the village of Bankauli, with which his employer was at feud. Along with the plunder, Daud came into possession of an eight-year-old Hindu boy, a Jat or an Ahir. Daud converted him to Islam and adopted him as his son under the name of Ali Muhammad Khan.

Daud Khan gradually acquired some villages and organized a band of four or five hundred Afghans. In 1713, Shah Alam Khan, who was once Daud's master, hearing of his former slave's success, came to visit him in Hindustan. He was kindly received and dismissed with gifts. Shah Alam returned to Roh or Pakhtunkhwa but visited Katehr again after five or six years, this time urging Daud to return with him to his native village. Daud Khan protested against abandoning his position. Shah Alam was forced to set out alone on his return journey but was killed by some unknown persons near Badaun on 7th November 1718. Shah Alam had left a son at his village of Toru Shamatpur, four or five years of age, was the well-known Hafiz Rahmat Khan.

A year later, Daud Khan left the service of Mudar Shah and joined the service of Debi Chand, the Raja of Kumaon, who made him commander of his forces. With the assisstance of Daud Khan and his Afghans, the Raja of Kumaon, extended his sway over a large area, encroaching upon the territory under Mughal government. Azmatullah Khan, the imperial governor of Moradabad, confronted Rohilla force under Daud Khan, in which the latter were defeated after a fierce battle. The Raja Debi Chand suspected Daud Khan to be in collusion with the imperialists and plotted to murder him. The Raja invited Daud Khan to attend and receive his pay. Daud Khan, suspecting no treachery, paid the visit to the Raja. The Raja ordered him to be seized and he along with all his companions, was tortured to death in 1720.

After Daud Khan's death, the surviving lieutenants like Malik Shadi Khan Kamalzai, Sadar Khan Kamalzai, Sardar Khan, Dunde Khan Barech, and Fateh Khan acknowledged his adopted son, Ali Muhammad Khan, as their leader, as he was considered the most able man among them. Muhammad Khan, the only natural son of Daud Khan, was passed over since he was a minor. Though Ali Muhammad Khan was not Afghan by origin, he spoke Pashto and followed Afghan customs.

Books consulted:

1- The Ruhela chieftaincies: the rise and fall of Ruhela power in India in the eighteenth century
2-  Later Mughals; - Volume 2 by William Irvine
3-  The Rise of the Indo-Afghan Empire, c. 1710-1780 by Jos J. L. Gommans
4-  Fall Of The Mughal Empire- Vol. I by Jadunath Sarkar

Portrait of a Rohilla Afghan from Barech tribe” Northern India; 1821-1822

Kumaon, Uttarakhand. Daud Khan was killed by the Raja of Kumaon. In 1743, Ali Muhammad avenged the death of Daud Khan by invading and conquering Kumoan.

Rohillas, the Indo-Afghans

"Roh" is a corruption of the word "Koh," meaning mountain. Some writers have claimed that "Roh" has Sanskrit roots, but the term denoting mountains is not found in Sanskrit. The Pashtuns themselves do not use the word "Roh" for mountain, but in medieval times, they seemed to have employed it for their country. The neighboring Seraiki speakers in the plains immediately east of the Sulaiman Mountains, however, do use the word "Roh" in the meaning of mountain. The author of Khulasat-ul-Ansab, who was a Pashtun born in Pakhtunkhwa, described Roh as "the large tract of country belonging to, and inhabited by, the Afghans, the eastern boundary of which extends to Kashmir, and the western to the river Hirmand, a distance of two-and-a-half months’ journey; and on the north its boundary extends to Kashkar (Chitral), and its southern boundary to Baluchistan. It therefore lies between Iran, Turan, and Hind. "[2]

Those who migrated from Roh (Pakhtunkhwa) to India in 16th, 17th and 18th century, were designated as Rohela (meaning inhabitant of Roh) by Indians. Pashtuns in their native lands do not call themselves Rohela  (روهیله)  , the suffix -ela is Indian nomenclature (for example Bundela, Baghela etc).

The real founders of Rohilla power in India were an Afghan adventurer, named Daud Khan, who arrived in India immediately after the death of Aurangzeb, and his adopted son, 'Ali Muhammad Khan, who succeeded him as leader of a band of mercenary troops. Ali Muahmmmad Khan carved out for himself a principality in Ketehr (U.P, india). It was during lifetime of Ali Muhammad Khan that Katehr came to be known as Rohilkhand. Rohilla rule was terminated in 1774 when the country was overrun by British. Rampur was the only Rohilla principality which survived as a princely state under British rule. Rampur state was created by Faizullah Khan, a son of Ali Muhammad Khan.

As late as 1815, Pashto was spoken in Rampur. Mountstuart Elphinstone writes in 1815 :-

 "The residence of the Nabob (Nawab) is at Rampur, the manner of which place still resemble those of the Berdooraunees (Bar-Durranis). Pushtoo is the principle language, and one sees in the square before the Nabob's place, fair, strong, and handsome young men, sitting or lounging on beds, with that air of idleness and independence which distinguishes the Eusofzyes (Yousafzais)." [3].

Rohillas maintained a remarkable equality among themselves whenever they assembled. It was difficult to distinguish between a sardar and an ordinary soldier in their assembly. For a long time they also maintained their traditional tribal dress of their old country which consisted of long and loose kameez and tumbans (loose shalwar) of coarse cloth. They used broad long pieces of blue-colored cloth tied at the waist with large rumals, or handkerchiefs, thrown over the shoulder. Turbans were indispensable part of their dress which distinguished them from the Mughals by its 'oblique setting. [4]

Rohillas were famous for their tolerance towards their Hindu subjects. Mountstuart Elphinstone writes, "Rohillas are the bravest soldiers we have ever contended with in India. Their kindness to their Hindoo subjects cannot be denied" [5]. Najib-ud-Daulah did not approve Maulvi Nazar Muhammad act of forced conversion of a Hindu Khatri woman to Islam. As administrator of Delhi, Najib-ud-Daulah expelled the Maulvi from the city. At Hapur, just before his death, Najib-ud-Daulah learnt that the Hindu festival at Garh Mukteswar was in progress, and instructed his followers to ensure that none of the pilgrims were subjected to harassment or plunder [6]. Hafiz Rahmat Khan and his sardars supported Hindu scholars and priests, granting them financial assistance for their subsistence. [7]

Rohilkhand greatly flourished under the rule of Rohillas. Mountstuart Elphinstone writes;

"The state of improvement to which they [Rohillas] had brought their country, excited the admiration of our troops, and has been displayed with enthusiastic eloquence by Burke. The coldest phrases express that "it was cultivated like a garden, without one neglected spot in it."Even now it is among the richest parts of the British provinces. It consists of vast plains, covered with fields of corn, or orchards of Mango trees, and filled with populous towns and flourishing villages." [8]

Rohilla soldiers, c.1830-1840. British Library. Photo courtesy: Farrukh Husain

Portrait of Habibullah Khan Rohilla, elephant-merchant, wearing a turban, carrying a falcata curved sword, two additional swords and a rifle gun. 1842. By Colesworthey Grant

A brush drawing in ink on paper, depicting Nawab Yusuf Ali Khan of Rampur (Rohilkand) on horseback, with retainers c.1830.

“Portrait of a Rohilla Afghan” Northern India; 1821-1822. An inscription on the back identifies him as a member of the Barech family. The David collection The David collection

Portrait of a Rohilla with musket, 19th century

References

1- Journal of the Asiatic Society of Pakistan - Volume 15 - Page 191
2- "Notes on Afghanistan and part of Baluchistan", Raverty, p-2
3- "An Account of the Kingdom of Caubul", p-351
4- "Akhbar-i-Sanadeed", Vol-II, p-503
5- "An Account of the Kingdom of Caubul", p-350

6- "The Ruhela chieftaincies", Iqbal Husain, p-210

7- Ibid, p-210
8- "An Account of the Kingdom of Caubul", p-350

Ghulam Qadir Rohilla (1758-1789)

Ghulam Qadir Khan was son of Zabita Khan and the grandson of the renowned Rohilla Chieftain Najib-ud-Dawla. His mother's name was Masooma Begum. He was 14 years old in 1772 when Maratha-Mughal forces captured the fort of Pathagarh. 

After Najib had retired, his son Zabita Khan was the Regent in Delhi until Shah Alam's return, at which time Zabita Khan fell victim to court intrigues. Zabita Khan was succeeded by his son Ghulam Qadir. His first act was to seize the lands of his relatives, among them those of his uncle, Afzal Khan. He then regained all the territories held by his grandfather Najib-ud-daula, including the Dun, and strongly fortified his castle of Ghausgarh. His activity made him respectable by the Sikhs, and for the first time for many years the land had peace. The period of his rule, though eventful, was brief. In 1787 taking advantage of the death of Najaf Khan, he led his forces down the Doab to Delhi, the Marathas being then engaged elsewhere, as Sindhia was fighting with the Raja of Jaipur, and Mansur Ali Khan, who was in charge of the palace, urged Ghulam Qadir to seize the vacant office of Amir-ul-umra. The Maratha commandant sent a small force to oppose the Rohillas, who defeated the enemy with great slaughter, and Ghulam Qadir thus gained the possession of the capital. He was checked, however, by the determined attitude of the Begam Somru of Sardhana , by her advance Rohillas withdrew across the Jamuna. Soon afterwards Ghulam Qadir returned to the attack, and though Najaf Quli Khan came to the assistance of emperor, he stood his ground. He next proceeded to take possession of the Doab as far as Aligarh, when a reconciliation was affected and the Amir-ul-umra returned in triumph to Saharanpur. The next year Ghulam Qadir again descended on Delhi, bent on plundering the imperial palace, as Shah Alam had roused his wrath by calling on the Marathas for his assistance. Having gained access to the fort by treachery, he seized the emperor and proceeded to loot the women's apartments; but dissatisfied with the result he vented his rage on the Shah Alam and blinded him. The approach of Marathas was now imminent, and Ghulam Qadir fled to Meerut. Cutting his way through the besiegers of that city, he attempted to escape to Saharanpur, but was captured and put to death by slow torture. (Saharanpur - A Gazetteer , 1909, p.193-194)

Ghulam Qadir was castrated by Shah Alam ?

In April 1777 AD, the combined forces of Mughals and Marathas attacked the Rohilla stronghold of Ghausgarh (in Saharanpur district, UP) and conquered it after severe fighting. Zabita Khan fled to Sikhs. His son Ghulam Qadir and his uncle Sultan Khan were taken captives. All the people of Ghausgarh, including Ghulam Qadir, were ordered to be executed. The eunuch Manzur Ali Khan intervened and was able to save the life of Ghulam Qadir. Female folk of Rohillas were also arrested and were humiliated with body search. All the captured women and children were sent to Agra fort with exception of 14 years old Ghulam Qadir who was sent to Delhi where he was enrolled as a page by the emperor Shah Alam.

It is said Ghulam Qadir was very handsome and the emperor sensed or suspected that females of the royal harem were taking interest in him. Therefore, Ghulam Qadir was one day drugged into unconsciousness by his orders and was castrated.

The psychological humiliation caused by castration was probably the cause of his excessive cruelty towards Shah Alam in 1788. This account is recorded by Najib-al-Tawarikh which was compiled in 1865, eighty years after the incident so it may not be so reliable. Moreover, several accounts describe him as bearded. [1]

I am curious, what is your opinion of Allama Iqbal's description of Ghulam Qadir in one of his Urdu poem? He refers to Ghulam Qadir as "cruel Rohilla". He also has distorted the history. According to the author of Ibratnama, Ghulam Qadir ordered 19 Mughal princes to dance before https://t.co/GSJJ8qpHom

— Barmazid (@Pashz7) October 4, 2020

Read also: Ghulam Qadir Rohilla did not force the Mughal princesses to dance for him ;  Allama Iqbal made a blunder in his poem.

Bakht Khan Rohilla, the hero of 1857's war of independence

Bakht Khan belonged to the family of Nawab Najib-ud-Daulah (Najib Khan Yousafzai). He was grandson of Sultan Khan, a brother of Najib-ud-Daulah. Bakht Khan was, therefore, a cousin of Ghulam Qadir Khan Rohilla 

In Bareilly, the garrison rebelled on May 31, 1857. After the routine of initial confusion, disorder, looting and killing, Khan Bahadar Khan was proclaimed leader. Bakht Khan was a Pashtun related to the family of Rohilla chief Najib-ul-Daula, from omar khel branch of the Yusufzai tribe. He was born in Bijnor in Rohilkhand and later became a subedar in the army of the East India Company, gaining forty years of experience in the Bengal horse artillery and seeing action in the First Anglo-Afghan War .

Bakht Khan arrived at Delhi on July 1, 1857, with an immense troopps of rohilla sepoys and 4000 muslim jihadis loyal to maulvi sarfraz ali. His reputation as an able administrator and a shrewd military strategist had reached Delhi much before his arrival.

The poor Mughal King, after much reluctance, decides to award the just landed General ,a royal sword and a buckle but Bakht Khan still refuses to present the ‘nazar’ (a mandatory monetary gift to be offered to the King) when meeting him. Soon after, this Khan then begins to give a piece of his mind to the king, he begins, “Your good for nothing princes [sons] enjoy full powers over your military. Give all the power to me as no one else but I know the norms of the English army, who knows them better than me?” This was blunt and undiplomatic at its best, but the man in question, meant business. He was duly appointed the Governor General of the army, effectively displacing Mirza Mughal the headstrong son of Zafar.

Munshi Jiwan Lal in the notes to his British Masters appreciates measures taken by Bakht Khan. There were to be no taxes on salt and sugar, looting [by the just arrived rebel soldiers]had to be stopped else their plundering hands would be cut off, shopkeepers were to be given full protection and even encouraged to use weaponsif they had none, then would be duly provided from the state armory], soldiers were to be removed from the Dilli bazaars as it created difficulties for the general public and relocated in camps outside Delhi gate, their salaries were to be restored and promises of jagirs were made to them in return of their services to the army. He further informs that the General’s men had also killed three spies working for the British [M.Baqar Ali, father of Muhammad Husain Azad, the famous Urdu writer, too, had complained in his first report that, he is followed by the spies of Bakht Khan wherever he goes,

General Bakht Khan always worked on new strategies to defeat his enemy. Soon after his arrival, on the ninth of July he made a massive attempt to destroy the British forces and one of his strategies was to clothe his men in British white uniforms. This took the opponents by surprise and a deep access was gained into their camp.

Mirza Mughal had nursed a grudge since the General caused his removal from the military affairs. Bakht Khan’s undiplomatic ways too didn’t help. He was ruthless enough to ask the princes to keep away from military and administrative affairs as he believed ‘everyone knew that they were good for nothing fellows’.

Bakht Khan informed the king that Prince Khizar and others were stashing away the taxes collected from the city traders and due to this salaries of the army could not be paid. Prince Khizar was asked to return the booty. The commoners were pleased with him while the Mughal princes vowed vengeance.

The Neemuch brigade-his force- was well-known for its valor; but the two of its generals Ghaus Khan and General Sidhari Singh [supporter of Mirza Mughal] parted ways, from Bakht Khan, as they couldn’t digest the fact that, an officer of the similar rank as theirs should get so much importance from the King. During the battles he was left alone to fend for himself. A most ridiculous charge of his being a British spy also came along. All this put him under great pressure and he had to issue a statement denying all these charges. Whether it was failure to capture the army bastions at Alipur, Manali Bridges and the Ridge and almost all the failures were wrongly attributed to the General. Zafar too now was infected with doubt and the devious designs of his foes resulted in Bakht Khan’s removal as Governor General by the end of July. A Court of Administration was established to run the affairs of the Mughal Darbar. The General and his Bareilly brigade kept their distance from it but their assaults grew weaker and the tremendous pressure that he was able to put on the British began to diminish. Dalrymple remarks, “…the end of Bakht Khan’s military system brought instant relief to the British on the ridge”.
“And so, when we were scarcely able to stand, the attacks ceased, as if by a dispensation of Providence, and gave our force the repose they so much needed.”. The one man who possessed the potential for defeating the enemy was thus, rendered impotent.

His military achievements despite the hostilities he faced were amazing; be it capturing three hundreds of British horses taking supplies to their masters, or one of his final determined attacks with his Bareilly and Neemuch troops, which forced the British to make a hasty retreat, from Hindu Rao’s house. Bakht Khan’s advance up to the house of Hindu Rao was no mean achievement; it threatened to cut off the British troops from their camp.

On September 14 when, the British assaulted the Kashmiri Gate and the scene grew bleaker , bakht khan continued persuading Zafar to join him in the inevitable retreat as the area outside Delhi was still under the rebel control and help could be at hand. The former Subedar in his last ditch attempt, insisted to Zafar, that, the name and status of Mughal King would surely bring victory to the Indians. Never say die spirit of Bakht Khan is here for all of us to see. The fragile eighty year old King Zafar, last descendant of the Timuri lineage had even agreed initially. But schemers like Hakeem Ahsanullah Khan, the court physician and Mirza Ilahi Bakhsh, father in law of Zafar’s deceased heir Mirza Fakhru, superseded the Khan one more time, eventually leading the last Timur to be a hapless royal British prisoner. Bakht khan himself fled Delhi and joined rebel forces in Lucknow and Shahjahanpur

Burial

Historians in Swat claim that it was there that he came when the war was lost. Bakht Khan spent his later life under the protection of the Akhound of Swat.

Historian Fazal Mahmood Rokhan says, “General Bakht Khan was called ‘The Prince’ by Swati people of the day but they had no knowledge of his role as a freedom fighter. He kept his heroic past to himself to keep the British away.”

Professor Shad Khan, a former professor at Jahanzeb College, Saidu Sharif, said, “I would go to the tomb of a brave man with my grandmother, who told me that this is the tomb of the ‘Prince’ who had fought bravely against the English. It was the tomb, not of a prince from India, but a general, Bakht Khan.”

Rokhan said, “I have regularly visited the tomb of the unknown prince (presumably Bakht Khan) with Professor Shad Khan and have seen its condition deteriorate over the decades.”

He added that the grave was once looted by gravediggers hoping to find treasure as many consider him a saint. Incidentally many people continue to visit the grave, hoping the “prince” will answer their prayers.