The contacts of Germans with Faqir of ipi during World War II

German and Italian intelligence agents established clandestine contacts with Faqir of Ipi in South Waziristan. The Afghan government warned the Germans about the misfortune by all those who tried to manipulate frontier tribes. German ignorance about frontier tribal dynamics, the Afghans pointed out guaranteed that their covert activities would fail. Afghan bluntness did not deter the Germans.

In 1941, an Italian intelligence agent traveled to South Waziristan and opened contacts with Faqir of Ipi with a view to furnish arms, ammunition, and communication equipment for raids against British troops. The Italians provided the Faqir with a substantial amount of Afghan currency and 12,000 pounds. The Faqir agreed to receive radio operator to train his men in operating a German shortwave radio transmitter, he returned the British pound notes , stating his preference for American dollars or gold.

The Abwehr (German military intelligence) took over the Faqir of Ipi's portfolio from the Italians. German intelligence gave the Faqir of Ipi the code name Feuerfresser (Fire-eater). When two Abwehr agents with Waziri escorts left Kabul for south Waziristan , dressed as Afghans, they were carrying money, maps, weapons, and radio equipment's. On July 19, 1941, a fifty-man Afghan army unit surrounded the German encampment. During the ensuing firefight , the Waziris ran away. One of the German was killed, the other captured. Back in Kabul, German minister told Afghan officials the mission was merely exploratory and a "tragic mistake"

Afghans believed that the operation had probably been penetrated by the British from beginning. Afghan premier insisted that, given the vast British spy network and German ignorance of the region , similar ventures to be avoided in future.

Historical Dictionary of German Intelligence By Jefferson Adams
The Wars of Afghanistan: Messianic Terrorism, Tribal Conflicts, and the ... By Peter Tomsen


The Daily Herald claimed on its front page of April 16, 1937, that Mussolini was behind the revolt in North Waziristan. The Sunday Chronicle on February 26 1939 implied that a radio link between the Faqir of ipi and the Italians had been established. The article added meanwhile Hitler is active in Kabul.....

Subhas Chandra Bose viewed the Afghan tribal territory as an important staging territory in his plan to harass British India, Bose discussed these plans personally on his visit to Berlin. The axis however proved incapable of establishing strong propaganda operation on the north west frontier and never attained any capability to airlift commando units to support an insurgency in Afghanistan. The axis legations in Kabul received the following monetary requests from the Faqir ; 25,000 pounds to be paid bimonthly , according the Hauner's research, and double the sum if tribal unrest should be extended to other areas. In the event of general uprising on the frontier the sum would be increased three times the original amount, not including supplies of weapons and ammunition that the Faqir also required urgently to sustain insurgency .

The Germans also wanted to establish their own links with Faqir, but unlike the Italian improvisation, their leads had to be on truly grandiose scale. Oberleutnant Dietrich Witzel-kim, chief of the Abwehr branch in Kabul, was ordered with his Afghan and Indian agents to take charge of contact arrangement with the faqir and to seek out a landing strip in the operating area of faqir of ipi. A full scale uprising among the frontier tribes was the scheme dreamt by axis, to occur on September 1941 Barbrossa ( German invasion of soviet union) was expected to be completed. Had the axis managed the Faqir of Ipi and Shami Pir affair differently and fought a long term war on the periphery instead of direct attacks on France and Soviet union, the conflict would have evolved differently.

While Germans agitated in Afghanistan anti-British sentiments, George Cunningham, the governor of NWFP worked through his political agent Kuli Khan to get more mullahs in tribal areas to speak out against Bolshevism , and then the axis countries as enemies of Islam . Among the descriptions used against the Japanese was But-parasti (idol worshiper)

The Secret War for the Middle East: The Influence of Axis and Allied ...By Youssef H. Aboul-Enein, Basil H. Aboul-Enein

Pashtun tribesmen

`

Haji Sahib of Turangzai

Haji Sahib of Turangzai (whose real name was Fazal Wahid) (b. 1858 d. December 14, 1937) was a Pashtun freedom fighter and social worker in the late 19th century and early 20th century.Haji Sahib, who defeated the British forces at Karapa, was a follower of Sheikhul Hind Maulana Mahmoodul Hasan, a prominent scholar of Darul Uloom Deoband. Haji Sahib and his colleagues, on the directives of the Sheikhul Hind, migrated to the Mohmand Agency and made it their new base of operations.

He fought against the British in the 1897 Frontier revolt, in which there was a general uprising against the British by the frontier tribes.The revolt was ultimately unsuccessful, and in 1908, Haji Sahib went on the Hajj once again. On his return he became preoccupied with social work, education in particular. It was during this time he started touring each village and town along with Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, better known as Bacha Khan. The movement proved successful, and almost 120 schools were established in the space of a few years.

The British government reacted negatively to events, and accused Haji Sahib as well as Ghaffar Khan of running a parallel government to that of the British. They had him arrested and put on trial. He briefly attempted to oppose the British government but was arrested. On the basis of lack of evidence, Haji Sahib was released, but his fellow workers were given sentences of up to three years.

In 1913, Sir Sahibzada Abdul Qayyum Khan chose Haji Sahib of Turangzai to inaugurate the foundation laying ceremony of the Darul Uloom Islamia in Peshawar, present day Islamia College.

In June 1915 the British government issued an arrest warrant against him. Evading arrest at midnight, Haji Sahib left Peshawar and headed for Mohmand Territory along with his sons and trusted friends. Within days of arriving at Mohmand Agency, Haji Sahib along with Mujahideen from Chamarkand accelerated attacks on British positions in the nearby areas. The Chamarkand Mujahideen were under the leadership of Ameer Niamatullah Khan. In August 1915, they attacked a British camp stationed at Rustam in Mardan.

In 1923, the British sent their troops to Mohmand Territory to stamp out the resistance. This time however, instead of any bloodshed they managed to sign a truce after which they pushed back their troops. It proved a pyrrhic victory, and he eventually settled in Mohmand agency where he became preoccupied with building a mosque.

In 1936, Haji Sahib fell seriously ill. With time, his condition worsened and died on 14 December 1937 aged 81.

His tomb has turned into a shrine for locals, and his children started construction of the mosque along with Haji Sahib tomb in 1979 and completed it in 1990. The Mosque is known as Turangzai Babaji Mosque.

The Mosque recently came into the news when armed groups of Taliban fighters took over the Mosque

Who served their British masters most in the great wars?

Gurkhas
In WW1 200,000 Gurkhas fought for British. In WW2 250,000 Gurkhas fought for British. The casualties suffered by Gurkha units in two great wars exceeds 43,000.
The Gurkhas By Mike Chappell

Pathans
12,348 Pathans fought for British in WW1.

Afghan–Sikh Wars (1813-1837)

A Clash between Sikhs and Afghans. By Sheikh Basharat Ullah Patiala or Nabha, c1850, Toor Collection

Army of Ranjeet Singh

Ranjeet Singh organized his army on the lines of European pattern. The importance of cavalry decreased and infantry became the most important branch of the structure of the army. He engaged French and Italian officers.

Two European generals , Monsier Ventura and Monsier Allard, arrived at the court of Ranjeet Singh. Monsier Vantura was an Italian by birth , and an infantry colonel in the French service and Monsier Allard was a Frenchman who was also colonel in cavalry. Ranjeet Singh employed them to organize his army on European lines. The tomb of Anarkali was converted into a cantonment and high salaries were fixed for them (Steinberg, Henry, "The Punjab", 1846, p-98). They raised new regiments which were disciplined and drilled after the manner of European cavalry.

The third European general arrived in the court of Ranjeet Singh in 1825. It was Monsier Court who had received his training at Ploytech institution at Paris. He served Martial Bassiers in Spain as Aid-de-camp. The fourth general was Italian by birth, Monsier Avitabile , entered into the service of Ranjeet Singh.

Ranjeet Singh also extended employment to the ex-naiks and deserting sepoys and native officers of the East India Company's service.

Ranjeet Singh had a large and well-disciplined army. It consisted of thirty-one regiments of infantry , nine regiments of cavalry, the hundred and eighty eight pieces of artillery of various caliber. Nearly one-half of his regular army was commanded by the French and other European officers and the rest by his native officers.

Besides these troops, there were also forces of irregulars in his army, furnished by Jagirdars. The annual expenditure incurred by the Maharaja in the payment of his regular army was Rs.1,27,96,482.

Soldiers were armed and clothed by the state, and with the exception of two or three battalions commanded by English officers, were organized according to the French system. The men comprising the army were almost entirely Sikhs. Some European officers served in both the civil and military administration of Ranjeet Singh. General Ventura and General Avitabile held civil charges in addition to their military responsibilities. Ventura served as the governor of Multan and Avitabile held civil charges as governor of Wazirabad and later of Peshawar. Merlom, the American, was governor of Jearata and later of Gujrat. John Holmes served as the governor of Gujrat.

Ranjeet Singh payed special attention to the development of armoury of cannons. He installed factories for this purpose and engaged skillful persons in these factories till 1839. There were found hundred and seventy persons with five thousand men to operate these factories in Ranjeet Singh army, the most important among them were Ilahi Bakhsh, Ghaus Khan, Sardar Lehanah Singh etc..In March 1839, the Maharaja appointed Gnaga Ram as the paymaster of the irregular forces. In 1806 Ranjeet Singh appointed Mokham Chand , a Khatri, as the chief of his army. He served from 1806 to 1814 the year in which he died.

In addition to the regular and irregular army, the Lahore government had also on its pay a body of irregular cavalry called Akhalees. They were religious fanatics.

Guards of the Fauj-i-Khas Guard Ranjit Singh's Durbar Bishan Singh, Lahore, 1864, Toor Collection

Battle of Chach (1813)

In 1813 the Attock fort was in charge of Jahandad Khan Barakzai. The latter turned traitor and sold the fort to Sikhs for one lakh of rupees. Thus Ranjit Singh came into possession of Attock fort without any fight and the boundary of his kingdom extended up to the eastern bank of Indus river. Ranjit Singh garrisoned the fort with a large Khalsa army.

Fateh Khan Barakzai (elder brother of Dost Muhammad Khan who later became the Amir of Afghanistan) was shocked to hear this news. He rushed back and besieged the Attock fort after handing over the affairs of Kashmir to his brother Azim Khan. Karam Chand with a big force from Lahore and Mokham Chand from Burhan (near Hasan Abdal), reached Attock. The Afghans took a heavy toll on the Khalsa army by the night raids and skirmishes. Mokham Chand waited for the setting in of the hot weather. At last, on 13th of July 1813, both the armies fought a fierce battle at Hazru on the Indus, five miles from the fort. The Pashtun cavalry was led by Dost Muhammad Khan Barakzai. By a determined and resolute charge on the Sikh artillery under Ghous Khan, he captured some Khalsa guns. The Sikhs were almost routed , but for the intense heat which exhausted the Pashtuns. Fateh Khan , believing Dost Muhammad Khan had been killed , left the field. The Sikhs occupied Khairabad. This was the first battle in which the Sikhs had beaten Afghans west of Jehlum. [History of Pathans, Vol-I,p-191]








Ranjeet Singh's second invasion of Kashmir

In October 1813, Ranjit Singh, supported by his allies , invaded Kashmir for the second time . The local Kashmiri rajas, under the leadership of Raja Agar Khan, joined him. He met his first stiff resistance at Bahram Galla Pass by Wazir Ruhullah Khan. Ranjeet Singh bypassed him. Raja Agar Khan of Rajauri led the Khalsa to the rear of Ruhullah Khan through a different route. Because of heavy snow and rain Ranjit Singh could not cross the Pir Panjal Pass and on 26th December returned to Lahore. [Reference: "History of Punjab" by Syed Muhammad Lateef, "History of Pathans", Vol-I, Haroon Rashid, p-191]


Defeat of Khalsa in the third attempt to conquer Kashmir (1814)

In 1814 Ranjeet Singh invaded Kashmir for the third time. Guided by Raja Agar Khan of Rajauri , the Khalsa entered Kashmir via two routes, the main force under Ranjit Singh via Punch and Toshu Maidan Pass, and the secondary column under Ram Dayal Singh (son of Mokham Chand) , by Bahram Galla route viz.Supin into the valley. The secondary column occupied Bahram Galla on 18th June 1814 . Next day , guided by Namdar Khan Thakkar (a Kashmiri Muslim), they crossed Pir Panjal by the Sarai and Madpur pass. They occupied Hirpur dislodging the Pashtun detachment. Azim Khan Barakzai counter-attacked Hirpur and failed. The Sikhs advanced , and on 24th June occupied the area around Supin. However , Shakur Khan, the local chief , strongly defended the town. Azim Khan brought in fresh cavalry that completely routed Sikhs , killing many of their leaders , namely Jiwan Mal and Fateh Singh Chahchi. The adverse weather conditions further took a heavy toll on them. The main body under Ranjeet Singh also suffered a similar fate. Ranjeet reached Punch on 28th Jun. By mid of July he occupied Mandi and Tosho Maidan , on the outskirts of the valley. Azim Khan had already taken positions in the area. It was here that Ranjeet Singh come to know about the disaster of secondary column. He immediately sent Bhai Ram Singh and Diwan Devi Das with 5000 men. Soon after the departure of the reinforcements for the secondary column on 9th July , Azim Khan attacked Ranjit Singh. The Sikhs were utterly defeated . Ranjit Singh started a withdrawal that soon turned into a rout. He lost the elite of his army including Mit Singh Padhania , Gur Baksh Singh Dhari and Desa Singh Mann. After having been stripped of all his provisions and suffering heavily in men, he retreated to Lahore. [Reference: "History of Punjab" by Syed Muhammad Lateef, "History of the Pathans" , Vol-I, by Haroon Rashid, p-192]

Sikh invasion of Peshawar (1818)

Ranjeet Singh exploited the commotion and chaotic conditions then prevalent in Afghanistan and he marched towards Attock in October 1818 with a view to annex Peshawar. The Khattaks had murdered Bawa Phaddi , his agent at Attock. The Sikhs advanced guard , under Phula Singh Akali and Metab Singh , defeated the Khattaks led by Firoz Khan and Najibullah Khan , the local Khattak chiefs. The Sikhs occupied Khairabad and Jahangira. On 20th November , Ranjit Singh entered Peshawar. Yar Muhammad Khan Barakzai fled to Khyber. Bala Hisar and a neighboring village , Chamkani, the home of Shaikh Umar, were burnt by Sikhs. After three days of his stay in Peshawar, he appointed Jahandad Khan Wazir Khel , who earlier had sold to him the Attock fort , as the governor of Peshawar. Soon after Ranjit Singh left Peshawar for Lahore , Dost Muhammad Khan Barakzai drove out Jahandad Khan. Subsequently , on arrival of the Sikh force, Dost Muhammad Khan, through the good offices of his agents , managed to retain Peshawar as a principality of Lahore Darbar.   [Reference: History of the Pathans" , Vol-I, by Haroon Rashid, p-197]

Ranjit Singh with son Hira Singh,~ 1838-40

Ranjit Singh's fourth invasion of Kashmir and defeat of Pashtuns (1819)

In 1819 Azim Khan left for Kabul to help his elder brother Fateh Khan to gain the throne in Kabul. At that time Kabul was in the midst of a civil strife. He left his brother Jabbar Khan to govern Kashmir. Azim Khan had taken a large portion force of the troops to Kabul. In April 1819, Ranjit Singh invaded Kashmir for the fourth time. Two columns under Dewan Chand and Prince Kharak Singh headed for Kashmir. Ranjit Singh himself commanded the reserve division that trailed behind the advancing columns. Rahimullah Khan , son of Raja Agar Khan of Rajauri, joined the Sikhs. On 23rd June , Dewan Chand occupied Bahram Galla. The local Kashmiri thanedars of Punch and Supin, Mir Muhammad and Muhammad Ali, deserted to Sikh side. The Pro-Sikh Raja Rahimullah Khan induced other local Rajas including Namdar Khan to join the Sikhs against the Pashtuns. Pandat Bayuobil , an influential Hindu of the area , provided secret information to the Sikhs about Jabbar Khan's weak points.

A large Sikh army crossed Pir Panjal Pass and entered the valley. Jabbar Khan, with 5,000 men and with his generals waited for the Sikh army at Hirapur. He surprised the Sikh forces at Pir Panjal and had almost routed them when he got seriously wounded and left the battlefield. The Afghans followed him . They had lost their leaders, namely, Mehr Dil Khan and Malik Akhor Samand Khan . Jabbar Khan fled in disorder to Kabul via Baramula. The Sikhs captured the whole valley. 

He informed Ranjit Singh that Azim Khan was no longer leading the Durrani forces in Kashmir, and supplied information on invasion routes into Kashmir. On 3 July 1819, the Sikh army attempted to march through Shopian to Srinagar but was stopped by a Durrani army headed by Jabbar Khan. Although both sides sustained heavy losses, Jabbar Khan and his army retreated from the battlefield and fled in disorder from Kashmir over the Indus river. [Reference: "History of Punjab" by Syed Muhammad Lateef, p.415-16, History of the Pathans" , Vol-I, by Haroon Rashid, p-197]


Battle of Nowshera (1823)

Muhammad Azim Khan Barakzai did not approve of the policy of his brothers at Peshawar . In the beginning of 1823, he came to Peshawar . Yar Muhammad Khan fled to Yousafzai territory. Ranjit Singh sent his army under Prince Sher Singh . Later, Hari Singh Nalwa, Dewan Kirpa Ram, Sardar Atar Singh and Dhabi Singh reinforced him. The Sikhs defeated the Durranis at Jahangira and occupied the Jahangira fort. Muhammad Azim Khan gave a call for Jihad against the invaders. The  Khattaks and Yousafzais , under Akhund Abdul Ghafoor of Swat , gathered on Tarakae hills , about twenty miles from Attock. The Sikh advance was halted . On 13th March, Ranjit Singh along with prince Kharak Singh and Dewan Chand also reached the area.

Meanwhile , Muhammad Azim Khan, Dost Muhammad Khan and Jabbar Khan took up positions at Nowshera. Ranjit Singh knew the Durrani chief's mutual mistrusts and dis-loyalties. He was aware of their avaricious , ambitious and treacherous character. He preferred bribery to battle , and induced Sultan Muhammad and other Peshawar Sardars to get rid of Azim Khan. They gladly listened to him. Dost Muhammad came to know about the plot and readily joined it. The Yousafzais and Khattaks had taken up positions on the left bank under Samad Khan,  brother of Azim Khan ; Zaman Khan, nephew of Azim Khan ; and Firoz Khan Khattak. Syed Akbar Shah of the family of Pir Baba of Buner was the overall commander of the men on the left bank. Muhammad Azim Khan with regular army was on the right bank. Ranjit Singh fixed Azim Khan by a contingent under General Allard and Ventura , and himself , with the main force, fell upon the local Pashtuns on the left bank. A fierce fight ensued in which the Khattaks killed Sat Gur Sahae and Colonel Maha Singh. The famous Phula Singh, the desperado, was sent to charge the Pashtuns. The Pashtuns repulsed the Sikh charge killing the Sikh hero Phula Singh.

Ranjit Singh, with his reserves, led a fresh attack in person. The Pashtuns blunted his fresh drive but by the evening half of the Pashtuns had perished. A Sikh contingent had moved to their rear and they were thus surrounded. The Sikh artillery played havoc with them. Sword in hand , they fell upon the Sikh artillery and engaged it in a hand to hand fight. Thousands of them fell martyrs. The Sikhs dislodged the remnants. Among the other Sikh leaders , namely, Gharba Singh Manas, Karam Singh Chahal and Balab Dhar Singh , a Gurkha General , were killed. The last stand was made at sunset by a party of 200 Yusufzai , who fell gallantly fighting. According to Captain Wade, Sikhs suffered 2000 killed and the Pashtuns about 3000 killed. Not deterred by the casualties , the Pashtuns reappeared on the scene on the following day , led by Syed Akbar Shah . Near Pir Sabak, they engaged the Sikhs and almost routed them had it not been for the final charge led by Ranjit Singh himself. Thousands of them fell in battle . Ranjit Singh had spread the rumour that the Sikhs had captured the harem and treasure of Azim Khan Barakzai at Michini. This precipitated Azim Khan's retreated. He left every one in the lurch and fled to Michini , took his harem and treasure, and retired to Kabul. The local Pashtuns, without support and guidance, reluctantly dispersed. The next day Ranjit Singh occupied the fort of Hashtnagar. On 17th March 1823, he entered Peshawar for the second time. The Sikhs resorted to massacre on grand scale. Reportedly, since the term 'Sikha Shahi' meaning 'might is right' has been coined. The locals ambushed the columns and cut off the Sikh stragglers , making their stay most unsafe and insecure. It was the individual effort of the local Pashtuns that forced the Sikhs to vacate Peshawar soon after they occupied it. Ranjit thought it more prudent to hold a meeting with Dost Muhammad Khan and Yar Muhammad Khan who presented valuable gifts including the famous horse 'Gaur Bar' or 'Shower of Pearls'. The pleased Maharaja gave them back Peshawar as tributary to the Lahore Darbar. However, he divided the territory between the two brothers so that they remained hostile to each other, to the greater interest of Sikhs. After making the arrangements , he returned to Lahore on 26th April 1823. Azim Khan didnt long survive this defeat , and at his death Dost Muhammad obtained the chief authority at Kabul .[References: History of the Pathans" , Vol-I, by Haroon Rashid, p-197, Gazetteer of the Peshawar District, 1897-98, page-65]

A Yousafzai horseman, c.1840, British Library

Portrait of Sikh hero Phula Singh

End of Barakzai rule in Peshawar (1834)

Ranjit Singh made use of the opportunity to annex Peshawar permanently when Dost Muhammad Khan was busy fighting Shah Shuja in Kandahar. He sent Prince Nao Nehal Singh , accompanied by General Ventura from Lahore and Sardar Hari Singh Nalwa from Hazara to Peshawar. They crossed the Indus in April 1834. Apparently, the force had been sent to receive the annual tribute. The Barakzai Sardars had sent their families and valuables to Michni. They themselves remained behind with their horses ready to flee. The remnants of the old Ghulam Khana of Peshawar , who were mostly Shia, were not happy with Barakzai rule , secretly corresponded with Hari Singh and so did the chief  Hindu Dewan of the city. Hari Singh, finding every thing in his favour , marched on the city. Sardar Sultan Muhammad Khan and his brother Pir Muhammad Khan fled from Peshawar to Tehkal and Shiekhan at the foot of the hills. He later moved over to Kohat with three lac of Rupees. Their nephew Abdul Ghias Khan son of Jabbar Khan and his naib, Haji Khan stayed behind. They put up some resistance. There were several instances of individual bravery on the part of the Pashtuns. However, the Sikhs on 6th May, occupied the city and Bala Hisar without significant resistance. The local Pashtuns continued taking heavy tolls on the Sikhs. Ranjit had to send Kanwar Kashmira Singh and Sardar Tej Singh from Lahore to Peshawar and later, he himself came to control the sitaution. Dost Muhammad Khan (in 1835) , camped at the foot of the hills near Sheikhan. The local Pashtun tribes , who had gathered to wage a 'Jihad' against the infidels , accompanied him. General Harlan, who saw this strange congeries of Musalman humanity , wrote ;

"Savages from the remotest recesses of the mountainous districts, who were dignified with the profession of the Mahomedan faith , many giants in form and strength , promisciously armed with sword and shield , bows and arrows, matchlocks, rifles, spears and blunderbusses , concentrated themeselves around the standard of religion , and were prepared to slay , plunder and destroy , for the sake of God and the Prophet , the unenlightened infidels of the Punjab"

Ranjit Singh decided not to face Dost Muhammad Khan openly in the field. He had an American mercenary named Harlan used as an agent in subverting the loyalties of Durrani chiefs. He says of Dost Muhammad Khan's visit to Peshawar , which occurred during the period of his service with Ranjit Singh ;

" I was dispatched by the Prince as ambassador to the Amir. I divided his brothers against him, exciting their jealousy of his growing power , and exasperating the family feuds with which, from my previous acquaintance, I was familiar , and stirred up the feudal lords of his darbar , with the prospects pecuniary advantages. I induced his brother , Sultan Mohammad Khan, with 10,000 retainers , lately disposed chief of Peshawar to withdraw suddenly from his camp about nightfall. The chief accompanied me towards the Sikh camp , whilst his followers fled to their mountain fastness."

"So large a body retiring from the Amir's control , in opposition to his will and without previous intimation, threw the general camp into inextricable confusion, which terminated in the clandestine rout of his forces , without beat of drum , or sound of bugle , or the trumpet's blast , in the quiet stillness of midnight. At daybreak no vestige of the Afghan camp was seen , where six hours before 50,000 men and 10,000 horses , with all the busty host of attendents , were rife with the tumult of wild emotion."

Ranjit Singh consolidated his position in the area. On his order Hari Singh constructed a strong fort on the site of the old Bala Hisar. Many more forts were constructed in the area , including those at Kohat, Jamrud and Bannu. [Reference: History of the Pathans" , Vol-I, by Haroon Rashid, pp-201-203]

Dost Muhammad Khan Barakzai, 1841

Battle of Jamrud (1837)

The presence of Sikhs at Jamrud caused concern to Dost Muhammad Khan who took it as a prelude to further expansion into Jalalabad valley. He deputed his confidential minister Mirza Sami Khan to organize resistance with the help of local Pashtun tribes. The forces thus collected was headed by Dost Muhammad Khan's five sons, namely , Muhammad Amir Afzal Khan, Muhammad Akbar Khan, Ghulam Haider Khan , Muhammad Azam Khan and Muhammad Akram Khan. In the plains Mir Alam Khan of Bajaur , Saadat Khan Mohmand of Lalpura along with Haji Khan were to engage the Sikh garrison of Lehna Singh Sindhianwala at Doaba and Hashtnagar.

On 30th April 1837, the Pashtun lashkar attacked the Sikh garrison in Jamrud fort. The Afridis and Mullahgoris attacked their flanks and the Afghan army engaged the center. The Sikhs suffered heavily . Afghans were taken by surprise when Hari Singh suddenly appeared with an army of about ten thousand men, twenty pieces of artillery, and a great quantity of ammunition and provisions and made an attack on them, Afghans were thrown into confusion and began to flee. When the Pashtuns were chased by the Sikhs, Shamsuddin Khan reached the scene, with reinforcements. The fleeing Pashtuns turned back and engaged the Sikhs with fresh vigour and ferocity. Hari Singh Nalwa was killed in the battle. The Sikhs were thoroughly defeated and took refuge in the fort. Akbar Khan proposed to follow up the victory by dashing to Peshawar but the Mirza, who, according to Mr.Masson, had during the action ;

"....secreted himself in some cave or sheltered recess , where in despair, he sobbed, beat his breast, tore his beard, and knocked his head upon the ground , now made his appearance, declaring that his prayers had been accepted , and entreated the boasting young men to be satisfied with what he had done"   

In Hashtnagar, the Pashtuns led by Haji Khan , Mir Alam Khan of Bajaur, Saadat Khan of Lalpura and Syed Baba Jan of Kunar attacked the Sikhs. The attack failed and the fort was besieged. However , due to connivance of Sardar Sultan Muhammad Khan and Pir Muhammad Khan , who were then at Lahore, in attendance on Ranjit Singh , the Bajaur, Kunar and Yousafzai chiefs deserted. Consequently, Haji Khan and Saadat Khan also dispersed. Dost Muhammad Khan had realized that due to the internal intrigues and strife , he could not present a unified and well-knit force against the Sikhs and that without British aid, he was not in a position to recover his lost territory east of Khyber. Accordingly, he wrote to Auckland , the Governor General of India , for help against the Sikhs. The latter advised him reconciliation with Ranjit Singh and suggested commercial dealings with the British India. Lord Auckland's reply disappointed the Amir who approached Russians for help to defend his eastern frontiers. At the same time, he severed his relations with the Government of India. [Reference: History of the Pathans" , Vol-I, by Haroon Rashid, pp-203-205]

Jamrud fort , 1861

A typical Mahsud in Waziristan

A typical Mahsud in Waziristan, circa 1890-1910. Photo by Mela Ram/Royal Geographical Society.

Coronation of Habibullah Khan of Afghanistan, 1901

Afghan Peace delegates at Murree, 1919

Amir Habibullah in Peshawar, 1905

Outcome of The Third Afghan War

The casualties during this small conflict were not great. Approximately, there were 1,000 Afghan killed in action and 1,751 British and Indian troops. The war ended 29 days after it had starter, in stalemate, and both sides claiming victory. British suffered almost twice casualties than the Afghan and Amir Amanullah was, ultimately, able to secure his strategic political goal, gaining the right to implement Afghanistan´s own foreing policy, independent of Delhi. The war offered Amanullah the opportunity to gain strategic political aims. As a result of the peace treaty, the British ceased the payment of the Afghan subsidy and stopped the arms sales from India to Afghanistan. But, as the British influence declined, the Afghan were able to gain control over their own foreign affairs and emerged as a fully independent state.
The tribesmen benefited greatly from the weapons and ammunition that the Afghan had left behind, and from the influx of manpower in the large number of deserters from the militia that had joined their ranks, so they were able to launch a campaign of resistance against British authority on the North West Frontier that led, finally to a punitive campaign which was, perhaps, the most serious ever fought on the Frontier and in which the British Indian Army faced humiliating defeat.
The campaign in Waziristan, the last act of the Third Afghan War, was the first major occasion on which the British had had to come to grips in the Frontier with the new situation created by the advent on a large scale of the modern, breech-loading, magazine rifle firing smokeless powder. Despite the deployment of the full range of up-to-date military technology on the British side, their early defeats and posterior hard fighting made clear that success would depend clearly upon discipline and individual training. This campaign led also to the intention to construct a network of permanent roads in tribal territory and the creation of an also permanent base in Ladha for a full brigade, changing the Frontier policy that, until that moment and for 70 years, had been one of no interference with the tribes but the occasional punitive expedition.


Afghan Delegation at the British outpost, 1919

The Afghan peace delegates, 1919

British Camp in Haidri Kach, Waziristan 1920

Third of British Indian army was stationed in NWFP and tribal areas

There are two forms of warfare to be taught in India, viz, open warfare and mountain warfare. Except for those stationed on the frontier the former of course requires the most attention, but mountain warfare should never be entirely neglected in view of the fact that wherever the Army in India fights in the future it is almost certain to be in mountainous country. In addition, about a third of our Army in India is presently stationed on the frontier and practically every unit takes a turn of duty there sooner or later
(“An Infantry Officer”, ‘Collective Training in a Battalion’, JUSII, 60/259, (1930), p.128)
THE ARMY IN INDIA & FRONTIER WARFARE 1914-1939
Military Power: Land Warfare in Theory and Practice edited by Brian Holden Reid

British campaign against Mohmands (1935)

1935's photograph showing Mk-II light tanks in the Mohmand tribal area. The first operational use of tanks in British India was against the Mohmands in 1935

In 1933,  a road from Shabqadar to Gandab was constructed by British despite the resistance offered by a lashkar of Haji Sahib of Turangzai. In 1935 Badshah Gul (son of Haji Sahib) persuaded the Lar Mohmands to destroy the Gandao road on the sector south from the Karrapa Pass, leading to renewed hostilities. On 22nd August 1935,  Brigadier Auchinleck (who later became commander-in-chief of British Indian army and of middle eastern theater during WWII)  led over 30,000  troops against Mohmands with air support commanded by Basil Embry. Tanks were used which was the first operational use of tanks in India. The Mohmands had nothing to face the Tanks with. Having no word for Tanks, they called it  “the snakes that spit”.

During the operations, Royal Air Force gave close support to ground troops and helped in the destruction of the villages and breaking up the Mohmand fighters who had taken positions in Karappa, Ali Kandi and Pir Kalay. It was reported that the commanding officer ordered the bombing of every village in Pindiali, Danish Khel and Bazid Khel areas. For four days bombs were dropped in Burhan Khel, Essa Khel and the rest of the Mohmand area. A leader titled "Ethics of bombing" in "The Statesman" newspaper supported such action by concluding

"If the Government of India have to teach a lesson to the marauders a lesson – what , from the point of view of the party attacked , is the difference between being bombed from above or shelled from opposite or being attacked by machine-gun or rifle-fire?" (9 September , 1935)

British troops were ordered to occupy Dhand , resulting in hand-to-hand fighting and the deaths of several British officers. The British troops were unable to remove the tribesmen from their positions and on 24th August a severe battle took place in Karrapa. Both sides suffered heavy losses. Bombs were also dropped in Ghalanai on 23rd August , but still the Mohmands and Bajauris were holding their positions.

The Governor , Sir Ralph Griffith got leaflets in Pashto distributed in the Mohmand area, proclaiming that the government intention were to construct a road in the area for the convenience of the tribes, and that it will be constructed at all costs. On the leaflet he wrote   "The dawn will come even if the the cock does not crow".

Open and organized resistance by the Mahmands had ceased.  However sporadic raids and ambushes of the British troops continued . In October, a contingent of 5/12 Frontier Force Regiment and the Guides , supported by artillery, was ambushed by a powerful and well-concealed body of Mohmands. In the fierce hand-to-hand fighting that ensued , the British force suffered heavily. Haji Sahib of Turangzai made an appeal with some success to the Bar Mohmands and other tribes. Before it could escalate into an all tribes war, the British force was withdrawn on 23rd November 1935. A peace settlement was finally made in 1936.

The operation against Mohamand Pashtuns provided a practical test of the various changes in the British army introduced during the early 1930s. Of greater significance was the deployment of Mk II light tanks.


References:

1- "Pukhtun Economy and Society", Akbar Ahmed, p-69
2- "History of the Pathans", Haroon Rashid, pp-502-503
3- "Reforming the Pukhtuns and Resisting the British: An Appraisal of the Haji Sahib Turangzai's Movement", A Qadir, p-78
4- "The life and times of Hajji Sahib of Turangzai" , Muhammad Fahim Khan, Islamic Studies, Vol. 16, No. 1 (Spring 1977), pp. 329-341

British headquarters of  Brigadier-General Claude Auchinleck during the unrest in the Mohamand territory, 1935. The tent camp is located near the Nahakki Pass

Mohmand Blockade 1916-17

In the latter half of 1916 the Mohmands began to give trouble to the British, and a blockade of their frontier was organised, with barbed, and live wire to make it effective. The Blockade was made up of a series of blockhouses and barbed wire defenses manned by men of the British and Indian Armies along the British border of Mohmand territory. The most important engagement between Mohmands and British occurred on 15th November where at the Third Affair of Hafiz Kor. The Mohmand blockade was raised in July 1917 after making a settlement with the hostile sections

Mohmand Blockade Operations, November 1916 onwards. The permanent police post built in the corner of Subhan Khwar Camp on the road between Fort Shabkadar and Michni. Imperial War Museum.

‘Live wire’ on the Mohmand Blockade Line c.1917


The Mohmand Blockade


The 81st Pioneers on the Mohmand Blockade


The 2/4 Border Regiment constructing the Mohmand Blockade line.


Mohmand Territory


No.12 Blockhouse on the Mohmand Blockade


The Mohmand Blockade - note the armoured car.

 www.king-emperor.com

Waziristan 1917, British war against mehsuds

The short-lived Afghan invasion of British India in May 1919 was repulsed by the Army in India, but the ensuing tribal rising in Waziristan (where various militias raised to police tribal territory had mutinied) was a far more difficult proposition . Heavy casualties were inflicted on the Britsih Indian troops when punitive operations were carried out in the winter of 1919-20. In the heaviest fighting ever witnessed in tribal territory, imperial troops were defeated at Palosina between 19th-21st December 1919 by Mahsud and Wazir lashkars. A skilful combination of fire and movement was employed with deadly effect against British army by tribesmen who engaged in hand-to-hand combat whenever an opportunity offered. (See Despatch by His Excellency General Sir Charles Carmichael Monro on the Operations in Waziristan 1919-1920, (Simla, 1920) and Operations in Waziristan 1919-1920, (Calcutta, 1921)
Following pictures are from British perspective.


A Mahsud village burnt by British 1917


A downed RFC airplane. South Waziristan 1917


A Gurkha mercenary with his Kukri.

Tochi river (Waziristan)

Kurram Ghari Fort

Carrying Wounded (of British) - Miranshah

Miranshah Fort

Thal Fort

Thal Fort at the entrance to the Kurram Valley was besieged by the Afghan Army during the third Afghan War. Mr Leeson says that it was the worst mountain-warfare terrain imaginable.

Fighters of Waziristan

Datta Khel Fort

The Datta Khel Fort was the post nearest to the Faqir of Ipi’s headquarters at Gorwekht. It sustained many sieges in the course of its history.

Datta Khel fort , North Waziristan, 1920.

Operations in Zhob valley, 1890

In 1890 khidarzai branch of Largha section of sheranis were still in open revolt. The British became determined to bring the unrest in the Zhob Valley to an end and in October 1890 sent out a brigade-sized field force under Major-General Sir George White, against khidarzais who were headed by Murtaza Khan.

It had been originally proposed by Sir Robert Sandeman that the Khiddarzais should be attacked by two forces of equal strength, the one starting from the Punjab and the other from Apozai as bases of operations. The Indian Government, however, decided that only one force should be despatched, and that from the Quetta side, Mr. Bruce, the Commissioner of the Derajat, to join it in the Khiddarzai country in order the more satisfactorily to settle the various points of difference with the tribe in question. In consequence of the continued representations which were made, this decision was subsequently changed, and a detachment of the Punjab frontier force was finally placed by the Government at the disposal of Sir George White to operate against the Sheranis from the direction of the Punjab and the Derajat to the east The Punjab force was
placed under the immediate command of Colonel A. G. Ross, C.B., of the ist Sikh Infantry, and consisted of one troop of the ist Punjab Cavalry, one squadron of the 3rd Punjab Cavalry, four guns of No. 1 (Kohat) Mountain Battery, two guns of No. 7 (Bengal) Mountain Battery, and half a battalion each of the ist and 2nd Sikh Infantry, and of the 2nd Punjab Infantry.
With the Zhob Field Force, 1890 by Albert William
When the troops penetrated the high country in the south of the mountain ranges of the takht-e-sulieman, they were sable to capture and burn the two principle villages of khidarzais . As the force continued its sweep though mountains, several skirmishes took place with khidarzais, and, when these occurred the nearest village was found and destroyed. The captured tribesmen were hanged on spot and their bodies burned. Albert William, who accomapanied the expedition, for example, writes that at Apoza a ghazi "fanatic" fired at Lieutenant Godfrey, the Assistant Political Agent,who his way to Europe on leave under cavalry escort. The ghazi first shot at and then dashed with his sword at Godfrey, but was shot in the hip and disabled. At hanging, before the drop fell, he shouted to the Pathan onlookers to pray for him. In another case the local who shot the Bengal Cavalry was also hanged on the spot of the attack. In both cases the bodies were burned.
War in Afghanistan By Kevin James Baker
With the Zhob Field Force, 1890 page 112

"During this march we saw several of the inhabitants on the hilltops watching us from afar off. It was a wonderful sight to see the natives getting over the rocks. They wore chupplis, a kind of leather sandal, and flew along like goats up, down, or along the hillsides. We often saw them in the distance, but could never get very near them. They appeared to vanish in a marvellous manner, their loose baggy garments flowing about them
as they moved along. They appeared to carry their food grain, dried apricots and
atta — in skins strapped over the shoulder, also water, so being able to live for days
away from villages and habitations."
With the Zhob Field Force, 1890 - Albert William

By these means as November advanced and the colder weather threatened tribesmen and their dependents (families) who were mostly out in open on bleak mountainside, the khidarzai came to terms. In the case of the Sherani tribe generally, the terms imposed were these : (i) that Murtaza Khan and the other refugees, if in the Sherani country, should be surrendered, or, in the event of their having left the country as had been reported, that they should not be permitted to return there ; (2) that a fine of 6000 rupees should be imposed upon the tribe, including 1000 rupees inflicted on individuals for offences committed by them in Dera Ismail Khan and Zhob ; (3) that the Khiddarzai maliks and other refractory members of the tribe who had either surrendered or been taken prisoners should be detained as hostages until all the terms had been fulfilled."


After the Khidarzai expedition of 1890, the tribe was split up, the Bargha Shiranis remaining under the control of the Zhob Political Agency, whilst the Largha Shiranis fell to the Dera Ismail khan.
Balochistan Through the Ages: Tribes


General Sir George Stuart White, the Zhob Field Force was organised under him in September 1890 for subjection and pacification of khidarzai.

Sir George White says :
"This fine has since been paid in full, and Murtaza Khan, who had been for many years an avowed and active enemy of the British Government, surrendered himself to the Commissioner of the Derajat after the troops had been withdrawn from the Sherani Hill — a result, I submit, due entirely to the strong policy of Sir Robert Sandeman in insisting upon the responsibility of the tribe for the acts of its individual representatives, and a conclusive proof that the Sheranis no longer believe in the impregnability of their position to shield them from the long arm of England's power."

Afridi Marksman, khyber pass