Monday 31 March 2014

Sultan Sikandar Lodhi


Sikandar Lodi, whose original name was Nizam Khan, ascended the throne of Delhi in 1489 A.D. and ruled up to 1517 A.D. He has been generally regarded as the greatest Sultan of the Lodi dynasty.

Sikandar Lodi was the son of Bahlul Lodi and his mother was a Hindu goldsmith women. After the death of Bahlul Lodi, he became the Sultan of Delhi Sultanate.


His Conquests


Sikandar Lodi was a brave soldier who, soon after his accession to the throne, set himself to the task of preserving and extending the authority of the Delhi Empire.

1. First of all he set his hands on those chiefs from whom he feared disorder and rebellion.
2. Then he marched against his elder brother Barbak, who had assumed the title of an independent king. He was defeated and taken prisoner but was later on released.
3. Then setting his house in order he paid his attention towards Hussain Sharqi of Jaunpur who was once again busy making preparation for the recovery of his ancestral dominions. Husain Sharqi was defeated near Banaras and his army was put to an utter rout. Thus the whole of Jaunpur passed into his hands.
4. In 1495 Bihar was easily conquered and the Sultan appointed his own officers to carry on the work of administration.
5. As the Sultan wanted to carry on the work of consolidation side by side with his conquests he, instead of fighting with the ruler of Bengal, concluded a treaty with him and thus saved much of his resources.
6. The princes of Dholpur, Chanderi and Gwalior were also subdued.
7. With a view to exercising an effective control over his governors and fief-holders of Etawah, Biyana, Koil, Gwalior and Dholpur, Sikandar Lodi laid the foundation of a new city of Agra in 1503 A.D. and made it as the headquarters of his army.
8. All those Afgan jagirdars who were inciting Fateh Khan, Sultan’s brother, to rise in revolt against the king were severely punished.

Administration

Sikandar Lodi was not only a brave soldier but also a great administrator. Though mainly engaged in waging wars against the hostile neighbours and rebellious governors, he tried to organize the state machinery on efficient lines.

1. First of all he took various steps against the Afghan nobles and suppressed their individualistic tendencies very firmly. The accounts of various fief-holders were thoroughly checked and cases of embezzlement were severely punished.
2. A strict eye was kept on the provisional governors so much so that they began to receive the royal firmans well in advance by meeting the royal messenger on the way.
3. An efficient system of espionage was maintained to keep a strict watch over the provincial governors, nobles and other lawless elements of the state.
4. Like Balban he always maintained the dignity of his office and did not mix so freely with the people. He never assigned any high post to a man of low birth.
5. The interest of the poor was thoroughly looked after. Every year a list of the poor was presented to him and he gave them six months provisions according to their requirement.
6. Every attempt was made to encourage agriculture. Several corn duties were abolished to give impetus to agriculture.
7. For the promotion of trade various new roads were constructed and every attempt was made to render them free from thieves and robbers. In this way Sikandar Lodi organized and regulated the whole machinery of his administration.

Religious Policy

Sikandar Lodi encouraged Hindus to embrace Islam and for this purpose he employed both sword and money.

Character and Achievements

He had been generally acclaimed as the greatest of the Lodi Sultans:

1. He was a great conqueror who tried to revive the greatness of the Delhi Sultanate. He greatly extended the boundaries of his empire by annexing Jaunpur, Chanderi, Dholpur and Gwalior. He successfully kept the turbulent chiefs and the rebellious governors under his control.
2. He was also a good administrator. He devised various ways and means to crush the individualistic tendencies of the various fief-holders and governors with a heavy hand. Their accounts were specially checked and cases of embezzlement were severely dealt with. Every step was taken for the encouragement of agriculture and trade and commerce. Nothing was spared for the welfare of the people.
3. Sikandar was also a great lover of justice. He himself heard the complaints of even the poorest of his subjects and gave judgment with complete impartiality.
4. He was also a great patron of art and literature. He founded the new city of Agra and decorated it with many splendid buildings and great edifices. He himself was a great scholar who could compose verses in elegant Persian. He possessed a retentive memory and could store a good deal of useful knowledge. He extended his patronage to the learned and caused many great works of Sanskrit to be translated into Persian,
5. Sikandar is considered a fanatic ruler by hindus but still most of the historians regard Sikandar Lodi as the ablest of all the rulers of his dynasty.

Sikandar Lodi died in 1517 and was succeeded by his son, Ibrahim Lodi.



Tomb of sikandar lodhi

Saturday 29 March 2014

Life and achievements of Hemu, the Hindu general of Adil Shah Sur

Hemu was one of the nobles of insignificant origin, who was employed as a market inspector some time during the reign of Sher Shah. He belonged to the Dhusar caste , which is considered to be a subdivision of Gaur Brahmans, but in medieval times it was supposed to be the lowest caste of Banyas (grocers). Hemu's father Ramiya followed his ancestral vocation of trade at Rewari, a town in the Sarkar of Mewat. Hemu appears to have been the first member of his family who rose in prominence on account of his talent and ability. Employed as a petty officer , he soon distinguished himself as a competent man to be considered for promotion. He made rapid progress and ultimately became one of the important noble during the reign of Islam Shah. In 1550 he accompanied Islam Shah to Punjab where he was deputed alongwith high nobles to receive Mirza Kamran, in the fort of Rohtas. 

The circumstances following the death of Islam Shah, paved the way for Hemu's rise to the supreme position in the Afghan nobility. The accession of Adil Shah Sur to the throne after the murder of Firoz Shah, son of Islam Shah caused rebellions , and the Muqtas (governors) of large vilayats began to fight for political supremacy. In an attempt to control the situation , Adil Shah favoured all those noble in whom he reposed confidence. But majority of them could not retain their positions for long. Some of them were killed while others were won over by the rebels. The Hemu's path to the highest position in the Afghan nobility was cleared.

The displeased Taj Khan Karrani fled from Gwalior towards his Iqta. The Sultan pursued him hotly, overtook and defeated him at Chhibramau (in Farrukhabad district). But the rebel made good his escape , seized several war-elephants and treasures , and then joined his younger brother Sulieman and Imad beyond the Ganges. The Sultan stayed in Chunar and deputed Hemu with a large army to destroy the Karranis.

On Hemu's departure from Chunar, Ibrahim Khan Sur fled away from the court to rebel against the Sultan. The latter appointed Isa Khan Niazi to overtake him , but Ibrahim inflicted a severe defeat on the pursuing army near Kalpi and put its commander to flight. Thereupon the Sultan moved in person and reached Delhi which had been occupied by the rebel Ibrahim Khan Sur. In Delhi the desertion of Bahar Khan Sarwani, Rao Hussain Jilwani and few other high nobles weakened the position of the Sultan and forced him to retreat to Chunar unsuccessful.

Ibrahim Khan assumption of kingship in Delhi brought him into conflict with Sikander Khan Sur (the Muqta of Punjab) who marched from Punjab for the occupation of Delhi and Agra. Inspite of his numerical inferiority, Sikander Sur inflicted a severe defeat on Ibrahim Sur , towards the close of 1554. Soon afterwards Sikander's power was challenged by Humayun who started from Kabulafter he had received information of civil war among the Afghans.

At the time of conflict between Humayun and Sikandar Sur, Hemu had cleaned the eastern territories of the Afghan nobles, hostile to Adil Shah Sur. Hemu , having won a grand victory over the Karranis in South Bihar, turned to Bahraich where Rukh Khan Nuhani was in rebellion .Rukh Khan Nuhani was defeated and taken prisoner. Thereafter Hemu appointed trusted officers to carry on the government in the eastern territories.  His own nephew , Taharpal was posted in Hajipur to defend Bihar against the rebels of Bengal. Having made these arrangements , he turned to Chunar where the faithful Afghan nobles were honoured with special robes by Adil Shah on Hemu's recommendations.

As regard Hemu, he was honoured with the title of Raja Bikramjit and was sent with a huge army for the recovery of Agra and Delhi, which were defenseless due to Sikander Sur's preoccupation with the Mughals in Sirhind. But on his way Hemu came to know of Ibrahim Sur's occupation of Kalpi, therefore, he turned to Kalpi, Hemu defeated Ibrahim Sur, who fled to his father, Ghazi Khan Sur, the Muqta of Bayana. Hemu came to Bayana, laid siege to its fort and continued to rain fire on the besieged for three months. But he was forced to raise the siege by the news of the march of Muhammad Khan Sur from Bengal with a large army against Adil Shah. On his retreat Ibrahim Khan Sur fell on him but was again defeated.

Muhammad Khan Sur who had assumed the title of Sultan Jalaluddin Shah in Bengal after the death of Islam Shah, marched towards north India at the head of a huge army with the intention of establishing his power. He captured Jaunpur without meeting any resistance and then moved towards Kalpi.Realizing the seriousness of the matter, Adil Shah rushed to Kalpi and checked his progress. On Hemu's arrival, Adil Shah decided to fight against Muhammad Khan Sur. Crossing the Jamuna at night, Hemu made a surprise attack on the rival army at Chapparghatta, and swooped down upon the army of Bengal, taking it unaware. As a result the men of Muhammad Khan Sur were thrown into confusion and they found safety only in flight. Muhammad Khan Sur fought bravely with a few followers and was slain (December, 1555).

The victory achieved in the battle of Chapparghatta raised Hemu's prestige in the Afghan nobility and also strengthened the position of Adil Shah. By this time Sikandar Sur's power was destroyed and the Mughals had occupied the region upto Delhi and Agra. Their occupation of such a vast area opened the eyes of the Afghans who began to realize the gravity of situation . They decided to cooperate with Adil Shah whose army had achieved victories over the rebels under the distinguished leadership of Hemu. Within a short period from 1553 to 1555, Hemu had fought twenty-two battles and was victorious in all of them. Now the chances of the survival of the Afghan empire had become bright.

The nobles, who held territories in north India and were so dissatisfied with Adil Shah, joined him in the interest of Afghan empire. Adil Shah prepared two armies , one for the occupation of Bengal and the other for the destruction of Mughals. Salim Khan Kakar was appointed the commander of the army of 50,000 sawars, deputed against Bengal, while Hemu had to lead the other army, consisting of 50,000 sawars, 500 war-elephants and a strong park of artillery. But Salim Khan Kakar was killed treacherouslyby Taj Khan Karrani whom Adil Shah had pardoned and deputed to help his commander in Bengal.

Hemu detached Shadi Khan Kakar, one of the high nobles of Adil Shah, with six thousands sawars to oppress the Mughals in the Sarkar of Sambhal. Shadi Khan Kakar succeeded in destroying three thousands sawars of the contingent of Ali Quli Khan in the battle of Ramganga. At the same time Hemu appeared before Agra which the Mughal generals vacated without putting any resistance.

In all the places vacated by the Mughals, Hemu appointed trusted men , both on the ordinary as well as important posts. He did not spare any one disobedient to his king. Having made these arrangements, Hemu proceeded to Delhi and stayed near the city of Tughlaqabad. Hemu's fame as the hero of twenty-two battles and his large following and the unity of the Afghans, dampened the fighting spirit of the Mughal nobles , left in charge of Delhi after the death of Humayun. Hemu easily occupied the towns of Mehrauli and Tughlaqabad and prepared to make assault  on Sher Garh. He was soon joined by Haji Khan and other Afghan nobles, scattered as a result of conflict between Ibrahim Sur and Sikandar Sur.

Since the strength of the Afghan army increased day by day, Tardi Beg decided to give battle on October 7, 1556. As the battle started at Tughlaqabad, the Mughals fiercely charged the Afghan army and over-swayed its vanguard, right and left wings. Some of the Afghan generals, including Rao Hussain Jilwani were slain. But Hemu, who was unmoved in the center , encouraged his men and fell on the center of the rival army. Unable to face the fierce charge of Hemu, Tardi Beg and his followers took to flight, and Delhi was occupied by Hemu on the same day, where the people welcomed him and his companions.

Hemu enjoyed the confidence of Afghan nobles , and they began to look at him as the savior of the Afghan power after his victory over Tardi Beg. The Afghan nobles rushed to him from different quarters and laid down their lives fighting for their empire under his command. Hemu assigned positions to the nobles according to their status and position.

For the battle of Panipat, Hemu did not wait for the arrival of Haji Khan from Alwar, and Shadi Khan Kakar's three thousands sawars from Sambhal whom the latter had left behind. But the grave mistake committed by Hemu was that he sent the entire park of artillery in advance to Panipat under a weak guard , led by Mubarak Khan and Bahadur Khan. The Afghan guard was overcame by the Mughals and thus Hemu's army was deprived of ist very effective weapon. But Hemu cheered up his soldiers and proceeded to face the advancing Mughals in the plain of Panipat.

A fierce battle was fought between the rival parties on 5th November , 1556 in which victory seemed to have chosen the Afghans for its favour in the beginning. The war-elephants of the Afghans pressed the right and the left wings of the Mughals and the latter had began to leave their ground. But they did not allow panic to seize them. As soon as they found it impossible for their horses to hold up the ferocious elephants of the enemy , they came down and started to fight with their swords and lances. They also detached some parties from their reserve body to make over-flanking charges in the rear of the right and left of the Afghan army ; they caused much confusion and entirely stemmed their attacks. This was not all. The best of the Afghan generals were also killed. Shadi Khan Kakar was trampled to death, while Bhagwandas, a gallant general was cut to pieces. Similarly Khwaja Kakar, the father of Shadi Khan, Mahmud Khan Lodi and Qasim Khan Lodi were also slain. Upon these losses, Hmeu himself moved from the center , shook the left wing of the Mughals, and then fell on the Mughal center under the command of Ali Quli Khan. At a time when the Afghans were fighting gallantly under the leadership of Hemu, an arrow pierced Hemu's eye and made him unconscious in the haudah of his elephant.  His men, thinking their leader dead, took to heels. Hemu was captured and brought before Akbar and Bairam Khan. First Akbar struck him with his sword and then Bairam Khan killed him.

The fall of Hemu in the second battle of Panipat frustrated the hopes of the Afghans to retain power in north India. Inspite of the presence of Sultan Adil Shah in Chunar, the Afghan generals, like Haji Khan, Kamal Khan Lodi and Umar Khan Lodi left for Gujarat. In 1557 Adil Shah himself was defeated and killed by Bahadur Shah, son of Muhammad Khan Sur. His fall sealed the fate of the Afghans in north India.



Book consulted : Sher Shah Sur and his dynasty by Iqtidar Hussain Sidiqui  

Primary sources consulted by Iqtidar Hussain Sidiqui: Waqiat-i-Mushtaqi, Akbarnama, Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh, Tarikh-i-Daudi, Afsana-i-Shahan, Tarikh-i-KhanJahani wa Makhzan-i-Afghani, tarikh-i-Shahi, Tabqat-i-Akbari



Hemu did not declare himself an independent king

Some of the modern historians have taken the allegations of the predjuced medieval writers levelled against Hemu seriously without making the critical examination of hisorical facts. None of the historians, Abu Fazal, Nizamuddin and Badauni, suggests that Hemu set himself up as as independent monarch. They merely state that he assumed the title of Raja Bikramjit and other great names. The title Raja Bikramjit was already given to him by Sultan Adil Shah in Chunar (Tarikh-i-Daudi, p-191). No coin of Hemu has been found any where. Only Ahmad Yadgar states that Hemu declared himself sovereign , struck coins and read khutba in his name. But Ahmad Yadgar himself confesses that Hemu acknowledged Adil Shah as his master even after the conquest of Delhi, October 6, 1556. Hemu, therefore, could only assume the insignia of royalty in the interval of a month between Octb. 6 1556 and the battle of Panipat November 5, 1556. But it is extremely improbable that he would commit to such a hazardous enterprise and alienate the Afghan soldiers at a time when he had to concentrate his whole strength against the Mughals. Surrounded by powerful Afghan nobles , he could not become independent of Adil Shah. The Afghan nobles mentioned in the army of Hemu, Shadi Khan Kakar, Husain Khan Faujdar, Rukn Khan Nuhani, Mian Mahmud Lodi, Mian Khwaja Kakar, Ikhtiyar Khan and Mangali Khan were the highest nobles of Adil Shah Sur. As regard the Hindu nobles, they still constituted comparatively a small portion of the nobility. They were Rajya, son of Hemu's sister and commander of the left wing, Sangram Singh, Teharpal (son of Hemu's brother) and Bagwan Das. Abu Fazal says, "from foresight he preserved the nominal sovereignty of for Adil and waged brave wars against his opponents. Therefore there is hardly an justification for asserting on the sole testimony of Ahmad Yadgar that Hemu cut off the slender tie of allegiance to Adil Shah and seized the throne for himself. (Book references ; 1-  "The Successors of Sher Shah" by Nirod Bhuson Roy, pp-91-92, 2-"Sher Shah and his dynasty" by I.H.Siddiqui, p-211)





Illustration from Akbarnama depicting tower of skulls of Hindu Hemu and soldiers made by Akbar

Analysis of Afghan-Mughal war 1526



In 1524 babur captured lahore.But he returned to kabul to gather reinforcements and finally returned in november 1525.He crossed the indus river in december with 12000 Battle hardened troops.The bulk of them timurid cavalry,supplemented by turkish gunners with gunpowder matchlocks and cannons-till now an unknown feature on the indian battlefield.
On crossing the indus,he was joined by indian allies and also perhaps some mercenaries.


Babur's intelligence system warned him of governor hamid khan,who was moving with a force to join Ibrahim lodi.Babur dispatched his son humayun with a contingent to destroy the reinforcements that neutralized this force.Amidst rumours of Ibrahim lodi approaching with a vast host,babur and his army reached panipat on 1st april 1526.

Babur decided to take up a defensive position with a ditch and the yamuna on his left and the city of panipat to his right and await ibrahim's attack.
Ibrahim lod was facing dissension in ranks.He even had to resort to distributing riches to encourage his troops and promised more.Personally brave,ibrahim was an inexperienced commander and quite vain which upset some of the afghan nobility.

For eight days Both armies stood facing each other without making a decisive move.Finally babur in an attempt to goad lodi into attacking him ordered a night raid by 5000 picked horsemen.However the attack faltered badly,and the mughals narrowly escaped.
Elated by this success,ibrahim lodi now advanced to meet babur's forces on the fields of panipat.

Armies and Tactics

MUGHAL ARMY-
Commander - Zahir-ud-din-Babur.
Strength- 20,000
Including 3,000 Matchlockmen and 20 cannons.




Above depicts both moghul and afghan cavalryman in action.Behind is matchlockman with a protective mantlet.These and cannons were babur's ace card at panipat.The first picture depicts baburid cavalry,heavy and light.


Timurid Horse archers.A product of steppe warfare,these were the primary cause of the superiority of nomadic armies in the age of cavalry.Though the afghans had excellent horsemen as well,they relied on heavy mailed cavalry over mounted archers


The core of Babur's cavalry,would have constituted of these horsemen.Capable of both long range archery and close combat.

AFGHAN ARMY
Commander - Ibrahim Lodi
Strength - ~50,000
Including 20,000+ Heavy cavalry,30,000~ infantry.
500 War Elephants.


Ibrahim's Primary shock force was his 500+ armoured elephants.A terrifying shock weapon as well as mobile fortress,used properly they were a formidable problem.Against the earlier mongol invasions of the delhi sultanate under the khiljis,the combination of armoured elephants and Sultanate cavalry had proved too much for the mongols.However this descendant of genghis had something-that the earlier chagatai mongols didn't have - Cannons.




Afghan Mailed heavy lancer with equipment.The afghans were a redoubtable enemy,and under capable leaders like sher shah was to prove could easily turn the tables on the mughals.


Afghan foot archer


Tactics
The Afghans based their battle tactics around the shock strike forces of their elephants and heavy cavalry.Brute force in massed frontal assaults on the flat plains were therefore key elements of Ibrahim lodi's plan.A considerable part of this army was feudal contingents from the various nobles,they were thus not drilled nor trained to work in co-operation with the whole body,and suffered from lack of manuevreability.They were however well equipped and courageous.

Babur was a veteran of continous conflict in central asia and was well acquainted with tactics used by the uzbeks.The basis of his battle array were those pioneered by Tamerlane and tactics -the ancient mongol manuevre called Taulughma or wheel manuevre.He also borrowed elements from general persian-islamic tactics from his exposure with the safavids.

The battle array has a thin screen of horse archers in front of the main body called Qarawal.
They masked the deployment of the main force and harassed opponents.On meeting serious oppoition they would fall back though gaps in the line and reform on two flanks of the vanguard.

The first battle line consisted of the Left wing or Jaranghar,the vanguard or Harawal and the Right wing or Baranghar.These lines were provided with matchlockmen and artillery for fire support and formed the pivot of the army.
The Bulk of the army was deployed on the second line in the Kul or Centre.It could be subdivided into smaller divisions for easier command and control.
The centre was flanked by 2 small contingents called Iltimish.These were Mobile reserves which could be deployed on quick notice on any threatened sector on the first line,especially the right and left wings.
Finally,Further out from the main army were small bodies of crack mongol horse archers which acted as Flanking parties.Once the main enemy body had been engaged these would conduct a wheeling movement or Taulaghma and attack the enemy from the rear.
Finally there was a small rearguard that usually guarded the camp.

The Battle

The Pathans in Green,the Moghuls in Red.

DEPLOYMENT:
Babur establishes his defensive line with the city walls of panipat anchoring his right flank and a ditch and the yamuna river on his left.He orders his left flank strengthened by a stockade of trees.

1.In front of his army a screen of horse archer cavalry is deployed as the qarawal.
2.On the extreme sides at some distance,are the tulughma flanking parties of mongol horse archers.3
3.To protect his outnumbered front he has a line of 700 ox-carts tied together with rawhide ropes to break up any cavalry charge on this position.Behind this protective line of carts he sites his cannons.
Between every 2 guns,5-6 protective mantlets with matchlockmen[in triangles] were deployed.
4.At intervals of 100-200 yards along the line of carts,passages were created to allow cavalry from within to sally out and attack.These passages were heavily defended by archers and matchlockmen.This tactic of using a defended strongpoint as a central pivot was a common feature of persian-islamic tactics and was called arabes .Similarities can be found with ottoman tactics in this regard.[if you read nicopolis thread]
5.The first Line of the mughals divided into vanguard,left wing and right wing.[Abbreviations used].Khusru kukultash led the vanguard.
6.Babur divides his Kul or centre in,the outer left-centre[LC] and right centre[RC] divisions and the central division where he places himself.
7.The centre was supported by iltimish mobile reserves on sides.[I]
Finally the rearguard protects the mughal camp.
Except the matchlockmen and archers at the cart-line,babur's whole force is cavalry.
8.Ibrahim Lodi deploys his phalanx of armoured elephants in traditional fashion,in front of his battle line.
9.Lodi deploys the rest of his army in 4 Divisions - A large and powerful vanguard and a equally large centre.Flanked by shallower formations of cavalry.His flanks however are exclusively formed of afghan cavalry.
10.The Vanguard of lodi's line consists mostly of cavalry with some infantry.
11.The centre has the bulk of infantry,Lodi places himself with a chosen body of 5000 Picked Mailed lancers just in front of his centre.



1.As the afghan War elephants move up,they are greeted by the utterly unfamiliar noise of mughal cannons which terrifies them and they refuse to advance further.
2.The Afghan Vanguard clashes with the horse archer screen and sweeps it away,sensing success- the pathans surge forward..
3.The horse archers of the screen move back through the passages and reform on the sides of the mughal vanguard.
4.The vanguard of the afghans has advanced too quickly,thus creating a gap with the centre which is still far away .
5.Lodi aims his attack where the mughal right flank meets panipat,and the Afghan right moves forward in columns to try and outflank the mughal right.
6.Babur observes the afghan body inclined to its left advancing on his right flak and immediately reinforces the flank with his iltimish mobile reserve.



[NOTE:The arrows with a forked ending indicate ranged attacks,either bows or artillery and matchlocks.Grey arrows indicate troop movement.And white boxes previous position of a unit before movement]

1.As the leading elements of the afghan left wing approaches the mughal right,they are taken aback by the wagon line fortifications and hesitate on seeing the mughals reinforcing their right flank.As a result the front ranks halt,throwing the rear ranks already in a cramped space into some disorder.
The tulughma flanking parties now wheel and hit them with showers of arrows from the rear.
2.The centre of lodi's vanguard is held up by the concentrated fire from the cart line as the mughal cannons and matchlocks open fire,supported by archers.The noise and smoke terrifies the afghans.
3.The elephants now under artillery attack and totally unnerved turn and trample back through the advancing rear ranks of the afghan army,totally disorganizing and demoralizing it.
4.The mughals begin their celebrated tulughma wheeling manuevre.The right flank reserves move to outflank the Pathan left wing.The afghans now get a taste of the real weapon of the mughals-the deadly turco-mongol composite bow.Capable of shooting 3 times faster than the matchlock,in the hands of a skilled archer it could strike down targets at 200 yards.The afghan heavy cavalry is unable to cope with the mobile timurid horse archers.
5.Babur Piles on the pressure.He dispatches his right centre to join the assault on the afghan left wing.[See how each new reserve takes the place of the preceding formation,as that goes to flank the enemy as if turning a wheel]The afghan left wing is packed into a dense mass,due to the disorder caused by friction between front and rear ranks and becomes a massive target for concentrated mughal firepower from arrows,matchlocks and cannons.They take devastating losses.
6.Similarly on the afghan right wing,the mongol flanking parties bombard the pathans from the rear by wheeling in.
7.Simultaneously the mughal left wing moves in and joins the fray,even as the mughal gunpowder weapons take a toll on the front.
8.Babur senses a growing panic in the afghan ranks,and orders his left centre and left mobile reserve to sally out through the gaps and join the assault on the afghan right wing.



1.Bombarded from all sides,unit cohesion breaks down in the sultanate forces- as the aggresively wheeling mughal flanks compress the afghans into a central mass-a perfect killzone for the mughal artillery and gunners.
2.See the mughal taulaghma wheeling manuevre complete on both sides,as the battalions have wheeled almost in synchronization and surrounded the afghan flanks.This exceptional performance was made possible in part by the drilling and combat experience of babur's cavalry.
3.Lodi makes a desperate charge,cutting down quite a few mughals before he is killed.This was perhaps a premature move as he still had many reserves left and babur had nearly none.
4.Lodis' death triggers general collapse and afghans rout.
5.The second line now disintegrate on hearing of lodi's demise.

Losses - Afghans suffered 15,000 killed or wounded.The mughals 4,000.


Battle Analysis

1] Intelligence - The difference in effiecient intelligence had been apparent.Babur's espionage system allowed him to intercept reinforcements from hamid khan to lodi.
It is said to beat your enemy you must know your enemy.While babur continously probed the afghans during the standoff,ibrahim lodi had not sufficiently prepared for the true nature of the Moghul defences and was surprised.
His intelligence on babur's army too seems to have been minimal as he gave no thought to effect of cannons on elephants and made them a cornerstone of his tactics.

2]Discipline - Babur's army was by far more disciplined,being able to execute the complex wheeling manuevre flawlessly,while the afghans were thrown into disorder by their own follies and also charged prematurely ahead of the centre.

3]Morale - Napoleon is thought to have said- ''Morale is to material as three is to one'' .Morale seems to have been high in babur's camp.Babur treated his soldiers with an air of equality and the mughals were in enemy territory with nowehere to run.Ibrahim Lodis' troops on the other hand ,at least a part of them were discontent and the vanity of lodi himself didn't help matters.The elephant havoc and lodi's death were the last straw.

4]Technology -Babur's forces had the next generation of weapons technology available in form of cannons and matchlocks.While these were still primitive in form they rendered the elphants useless and gave babur an edge.

5]Firepower Dominance -While the afghans placed their faith on shock tactics,the mughals enjoyed a total dominance throughout the battle in firepower.The artillery,matchlocks but above all. the turko-mongol composite bow shattered afghan ranks with a ceaseless barrage.Firepower's effect is not only physical,but also psychological-as there is nothing worse to a soldier than to be fired at without being able to reply.

6]Surprise - Babur's unorthodox tactics
.The use of the cart line and the artillery placement,befuddled the afghans.These were things not seen before in the subcontinent's battlefields.

7]Failure of Elephants - The reverse rout of the elephants trampling through their own ranks,totally ruined afghan rear ranks cohesion and was a major reason why they never participated in the battle.But the elephant was a weapon of a bygone age,the old replaced by the new.

8] Ibrahim's Death - Lodis' charge was premature and unnecessary,while things were desperate upfront,he still had his centre division-shaken and albeit disorganized ,but intact.He would have better served to rally his reserve and assault the flanking mughal columns.If he had lived another hour,the mughals may have lost the battle as babur had minimal reserves left and the mughals too had suffered heavy causalities.

The First Battle of Panipat, Defeat of Lodhis by Mughals




The First Battle of Panipat gave a death blow to the Lodhi Empire and marked the end of the Delhi Sultanate's rule in India.

It led to the establishment of the Mughal Empire in India. Mongol prince, Zahir-ud-Din Muhammed, known as Babar, had promised to help Daulat Khan Lodhi, the Governor of Lahore, to fight the Sultan of Delhi, Ibrahim Lodhi in 1523 and undertook many raids into the Punjab.

Babar, after occupying the whole of the Punjab by 1525 AD, marched towards Delhi. In November, 1525 he set out to meet the Sultan of Delhi. Passage across the Indus took place on 15th December.

Babar had about 12,000 soldiers. They crossed Sutlej at Ropar and reached Ambala without meeting any resistance. On April 1st, Babar reached Panipat. It was barren wasteland, dry and naked with few thorny bushes. Rumours came that Sultan was coming with an army of 10,000 soldiers and 1,000 war elephants. The Afgha SulUfti of Delhi, Ibrahim Lodhi advanced from Delhi to meet invader. Babar had strong artillery, which was effectively pressed into service.

The battle started at six o'clock in the morning. Sultan Ibrahim Lodhi advanced rapidly. At about 400 yards, Babar's cannons opened fire. Noise and smoke from the artillery terrified the Afghans and their attacks lost momentum. Babar sent his flanking columns to envelop the Sultan's army.

Here, the Afghans met for the first time the real weapon of Mongols-Turko-Mongol Bow. Its superiority lay in the fact that it was the weapon of the nobles and the finest warriors. Such a bow in the hands of a Mongol warrior could shoot three times as rapidly as a musket and kill, at a distance of at 200 yards.

Attacked from three sides, the Afghans jammed into one another. Elephants heard the noise of cannons at close ranges ran and out of control. Ibrahim Lodhi and about 6,000 of his troops were involved in actual fighting. Most of his army, stretching behind up to mile, never saw action. Battle ended in about three hours with the death of Ibrahim Lodhi who was at the forefront.

And at the place where fighting had been the fiercest, among the heap of Mongol bodies, lay the vain but courageous Sultan, Ibrahim Lodhi. His head was cut off and taken to Babar. Ibrahim Lodhi's tomb is still present at Panipat. When the Afghans fled, they left 20,000 dead and wounded behind Lodhi's.

Losses to Babar's army were heavy; 4000 of his troops were killed or wounded. Had Sultan Ibrahim survived another hour of fighting, he would have won as Babar had no reserves and his troops were rapidly tiring under the Indian mid-day sun. Babar observes in his autobiography, "The mighty army of Delhi was laid in the dust in the course of half a day".

In the words of Rushbrook Williams, "If there was one single material factor, which more than any other conduced to his ultimate triumph in Hindustan, it was his powerful artillery". The elephants trampled their own soldiers after being frightened away by the explosion of gunpowder. Two weeks later, the victorious Babar entered Agra where he was presented with the famous diamond Koh-i-noor. Babar celebrated his victory in a lavish manner and occupied Delhi and Agra.

Moth Ki Masjid By Sikandar Lodi


Moth Ki Masjid is a mosque located in Delhi, and was built in 1505 by Wazir Miya Bhoiya, Prime Minister during the reign of Sultan Sikander Lodi (1517–26). It was a new type of mosque developed by the Lodi dynasty in the fourth city of the medieval Delhi of the Delhi Sultanate. The name of the mosque literally translated into English language means ‘Lentil Mosque’ and this name tag ‘Lentil’ has an interesting legend. This mosque was considered a beautiful Dome (Gumbad) structure of the period.

It is famously narrated that when Sultan Sikandar Lodi was on a visit to a mosque in the vicinity of the present location of the Moth Ki Masjid for prayer, he knelt over a grain of moth (a kind of lentil), which had been dropped by a bird. His loyal Prime Minister Wazir Miya Bhoiya, who had accompanied the King, saw the lentil seed and observed that

A seed so honoured by His majesty must not be thrown away. It must be used in the service of God.

So he took the moth seed and planted it in his garden for further growth. Over the years, the process of repeated planting and replanting of the moth seeds was carried out. In this process, the seeds multiplied several times. The Wazir finally sold the rich harvest and earned good money. With the proceeds of the sale he built the mosque after seeking permission from the Sultan to construct the Mosque. Impressed by the ingenuity of his minister, Sikandar Lodi laid the foundation for building the mosque.

Another version of the legend is that Sikandar Lodhi on one of his visits to the area played a prank on his Prime Minister by giving him a gift of a grain of moth (lentil). The Wazir accepted the gift in good grace and instead of throwing it away planted it in his garden. Over the years repeated plantation resulted in a rich harvest that provided a surplus income to the Wazir. Thereafter, the wazir, with the revenue earned from the lentil grains, decided to build a mosque. On completion, he invited the Sultan to visit the mosque and narrated the sequence of events which lead to the building of the mosque. Impressed by this unique achievement, the Lodi named the mosque as "Moth Ki Masjid" or the Mosque from the Moth Lentil.


Structure


Raised on a high plinth, the mosque has a square layout. It is approached from the eastern side street of village Moti Masjid, through an exquisitely designed gate made of red, blue, black and white coloured sandstones arranged in a neat design (see picture). In particular, the arch of the gateway has a Hindu arch within a Muslim arch.

Up the gateway steps, the entry is into a large courtyard of 38.6 m (126.6 ft) width surrounded by walls. Within the courtyard, on the western side is the main shrine or the mosque with the rectangular prayer hall porch, which has a façade of five arched openings. The corners of the rectangular prayer hall are adorned with double storied towers. The towers have arched openings at the rear end of the roof with domed octagonal chhatris (the Cenotophs) on the related walls. The west side wall is provided with tapering turrets that depict a sophisticated outline (pictured).

The Cenotophs were the first of its kind to be built in India and since then these have been replicated in several other monuments, even in the Deccan. There are three impressive domes inside the prayer hall with the Mihrab located on the west qibla wall of the central dome, which is the largest of the three domes. The Mihrab depicts Quranic inscriptions in flora Nakashi in Iranian design. Turrets project out of the qibla. The central dome is supported on squinches. The domes on both flanks are borne on muqarnas pendentives. Carved panels of red sandstone and white marble and plaster, as well as glazed tiles embellish the walls of the mosque. The overall effect of the Mosque has been best described as:

epitomizes in itself all that is best in Architecture of the Lodis and displays a freedom of imagination, a bold diversity of design, an appreciation of contrasting light and shade and a sense of harmony in line and colour, which combine to make it one of the most spirited and picturesque buildings of its kind in the whole range of Islamic art.

It is also said that it was the private mosque of the builder.
Five towered passage in the Mosque

An unusual feature of this mosque built in Indo–Islamic style of architecture is that it has an austere design with no minarets, calligraphic decorations and embellishments, which are otherwise traditional features of mosques. The dome is semicircular and windows have latticework screens.[11] An architectural appreciation of the structure vis-Ă -vis the five arched façade of domes of the period aptly infers:

the rapid crystallization of the earlier concept. Firstly, it is considerably larger than its predecessor. Secondly, the articulation of the recessed arches is far more adept. Thirdly, embellishment has been done using elegant niches on the columns abutting the arches. Another important feature is the use of better material and color, as if the masons were trying for something more permanent and forceful.



The architectural achievements of Lodhi Dynasty



Lodhi Sultans carried further the tradition of mixture of Tughlaq and Turkish Style of Architecture. In their buildings arches and beams both are used and also the balconies, caves and mandaps in the Rajasthani and Gujarati styles. Lodhi Sultans used a new style as well, e.g., construction of tombs on a raised platform so that they can appear to be lofty and huge.

The foundation of the buildings was laid so deep that many of these buildings are existing even today. Some other characteristics of the buildings of this period were uniformity of the buildings, vast chambers, high domes, arched doors etc. During this period some tombs were constructed within the parks e.g.

Tomb of Sikander Lodhi:

The Tomb of Sikander Lodhi was constructed within the Lodhi Gardens. Some tombs of this period were octagonal. Some of these characteristics were adopted later on by the Mughals also. In this period the outer layer of the domes were decorated with coloured covering.

The tomb of Sikander Lodhi is the best building of this period built in 1517 A.D. by Ibrahim Lodhi. The tomb is situated in a big surrounding wall and its dome is surrounded by an umbrella with eight pillars.

Mosques:

Among the mosques of the Lodhi period, the mosque built by the wazir of Sikander Lodhi called 'Moti ki Masjid' was the best. In other words we can say that 'Moti ki Masjid' is considered to be the finest specimen of the architecture of the Lodhis. (iii) Tombs of the Nobles:

The tombs of the nobles are not without much dignity and strength and the most important among them are the tombs of Bare Khan and Chhote Khan, the Bara Gumbad, the Shish Gumbad, the tomb of Shihab-ud-Din, Taj Khan, Dadi ka Gumbad and Poti ka Gumbad.




Muhammad Adil and Fall of Suri empire

Islam Shah was succeeded by his son Firuz, who was put to death by Mubariz Khan, the son of Sher Shah's brother Nizam and the brother of Firuz's mother. Islam Shah had suspected Mubariz Khan in his life-time but no action was taken against him. Mubariz Khan was ignorant and dissolute.

He did not possess those qualities which ought to be in a ruler. He took up the title of Muhammad Adil but he was called by his old nickname of Andhali (blind). He was hopelessly debauched and indifferent to public affairs.

He was childishly extravagant. He was popular with the vulgar and unpopular with the higher strata of society. He was not competent to save the Afghan Empire from ruin. The people were not prepared to forget his murder of his nephew. According to Elphinstone, "His character was not such as to efface the memory of his crime; he was grossly ignorant, fond of coarse debauchery and low society, and as despicable from his incapacity as he was odious for his vices."

Reference may be made to the rise of Hemu who was appointed his Chief Minister by Muhammad Adil.

Hemu was the son of Ramiya of Rewari. He was born at Qutbpur in the Dhusar caste of the Vaishyas or Baniyas. He is said to have been at first a saltpetre-seller, later on a Baqqal or weighman in the market and thereafter a Sahana ur Superintendent of the market of Delhi under Isiam Shah. Hemu seems to have held the office of Chief of Intelligence and Daroga-i-Dak-Choki or Superintendent of Posts. The Dak-Choki brought him every day one seer of Suna-Mung or the best variety of pulses, and one maund of fresh rice from Bengal even if he happened to be on the bank of the Indus.

He was unique among those characters of medieval history who were to prove equally adept at weighing atta and in wielding the sword better than the Rajputs and Turks and possessing much more intelligence than the average administrators of the martial races. Islam Shah discovered soldierly qualities in him and raised him to a very high position. In conformity with his policy of always placing a Hindu in command alongside an Afghan officer to spy on one another, Islam Shah sent the contingent of Hemu along with others to watch the movements of Kamran Mirza who was coming to his court in the neighbourhood of Mankot.

About the position of Hemu in the court of Adil Shah, Abul Fazl says: "Hemu undertook all appointments and dismissals and the distribution of justice. In his foresight he got possession of the treasures of Sher Khan and Salim Khan and their elephant stud. For some days, he took the title of Rai and then he fastened on the title of Raja on himself and assumed the style of Raja Bikramjit. Thus did he apply great names to himself. From foresight he preserved the nominal sovereignty for Adil and waged great wars against his opponents. By his valour and daring, he was victorious and performed great deeds. He became famous for courage and capability."

The chronicles have distorted the character of Hemu and even deformed his physique to hold him up to ridicule as a petty Baniya who was not able even to ride on a horse and yet have the ambition to rule the Afghans. Abul Fazl says, "Outwardly he had neither rank (hasab) nor race (nasab), nor beauty of form (Surat), nor noble qualities (Sairat) .... He (God) sent one worse than themselves to chastise the wicked of the age. In short, that evil-looking one of puny form.............................. by means of astuteness (and).... masterpieces of feline trickery.... made himself known to Salim Khan by evil-speaking and business capacity.

Apparently, he was behaving loyally towards his master; in reality he was seeking his own ends, and decking his household with the goods of the oppressed ...." Professor Kalikaranjan Qanungo points out that "The defeat of Hemu in the second battle of Panipat was a mere accident of war, namely, the capture of his artillery a few days before by Ali Quli Khan Zaman and the loss of his own eyes in the battle. No Hindi had ever been covered with so many glorious wounds on the field of battle except Maharana Sanga and no Rajput wielded the sword so bravely against foreign invaders as Hemu did on the field of Panipat.'"

There was a lot of discontentment in the country and it showed itself in open sedition. When the king in open Darbar passed orders for the transfer of the Jagir of Muhammad Farmali to Sarmast Khan Sarwani, the son of the former killed the latter there and then. He might have killed the king as well if he had not escaped. It is true that both the father and Son were killed in the Darbar itself but this incident gave a setback to the authority of the king.

Taj Khan Karsani who was at Gwalior took the road to Bengal with the object of creating trouble in that province. He was joined by many others. However, all of them were pursued and defeated by Hemu.

There were fresh rebellions everywhere and it became difficult to suppress them. Sikander Khan Sur, the cousin of the king, captured Delhi and Agra. Malwa, Punjab and Bengal declared their independence. The control of the king was effective only in the provinces East of the Ganges.

There were five Afghan kings struggling for power. Muhammad Shah Adali had Bihar, Jaunpur and the neighbouring districts under his control. Ibrahim Sur held Delhi and the whole of the Doab. Ahmed Khan Sur declared himself independent in the Punjab and took up the title of Sikander Shah. Muhammad Khan became independent in Bengal and took up the title of Sultan Muhammad. Daulat Khan, son of Shujaat Khan, declared himself independent in Malwa.

The Ruler of the Punjab was the first to move. He defeated Ibrahim and occupied Delhi and Agra. He became the master of the whole of .the territory between the Indus and the Ganges. The condition in 1555 was that Ibrahim was planning to get back his dominion from Sikandar. Adali was preparing to turn out Ibrahim. Muhammad Shah was on the point of crossing his border and attacking Adali in Bihar. It was under these circumstances that Humayun defeated Sikandar Sur and occupied Delhi and Agra in the same year. Thus, the second Afghan Empire fell.

Salimgarh fort



It was built by Salim Shah Sur in 1546 AD.It is located to the north of the Red Fort and is connected with a bridge in the fortress of Salimgarh. After the death of Salim Shah in 1552, Salimgarh remained neglected for a long time and then passed through good and bad days. During the reign of Aurangzeb (1658-1707) Salimgarh served as a state prison. Prince Murad Baksh and Prince Sulaiman Shikoh spent parts of their incarceration here. During 1857, Salimgarh was one of the strongest bulwarks of the national forces under the command of General Bakht Khan against the British. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan surmised that at the time when Salim Shah Sur built Salimgarh, the river Jamuna flowed by it and there was no water on the south side. Thus the southern gateway provided the main entrance. There was another gateway on the northern side. During the course of time, the southern bank was washed off and water surrounded the fortress of Salimgadh on all sides.


Salimgarh fort walls


Map of Durrani Empire at its Peak, 1761




Pashtun –Ottoman War (1725–1727)



In 1725 AD, Ashraf Hotak succeeded Shah Mahmud. He started his career in an insecure situation. Because of death of Mahmud, he couldnt expect any help from Kandahar nor from the Ghilzai leaders who suspected him of Mahmud's murder. At about that time, court of Constantinople and St.Petersburg were said to be cherishing designs of overrunning Persia. Tahmasp Safavi had assumed the name and state of a King but his efforts to regain the crown of his ancestors were weak and insufficient. The Turkish government had seized Kakit near Tiflis while Gilan and the town of Baku, left equally defenseless, fell into the hands of Russians. The Persian prince had endeavored at different periods to negotiate with both Turkish and Russian courts, but no purpose. His ambassador reached Constantinople, but the court refused to receive him as an envoy and when he made his proposals as a petitioner, these were rejected. However, Ismael Beg, the envoy he sent to Petersburg, had reached the capital and was with Czar when Baku surrendered. He succeeded in concluding a treaty according to which the Emperor of Russia would expel the Afghans and establish Tahmasp upon the throne of Persia. The latter, in return, agreed to cede in perpetuity to the Russian monarch the towns of Dirband and Baku, along with the provinces of Daghistan, Shirwan, Gilan, Mazindaran and Astarabad.

While these negotiations were going on at Petersburg, the Turks were actively engaged in extending their conquests. All Kurdistan had acknowledged their authority and fall of Irwan, Khui, Nakhjawan and Margha made them masters of the whole Armenia and a greater part of Azerbaijan. From Azerbaijan to within three miles of Ardabil and from Tabriz to Hamadan and from thence to Kirman, the whole territory had been occupied by Ottoman empire. All the cities mentioned above and the whole of territory up to the Turkish frontier were to be detached from Persia and taken possession by the Ottoman Sultan. The Turks and Tahmasp contracted an agreement that if Tahmasp agreed to terms, he should receive such aid as would enable him to establish his power over other provinces of Persia.; and if he refused, the Turks would seize the cities specified and would appoint a person they deem most deserving to replace Tahmasp on the throne of Persia. However, it was agreed that they would, on no account, listen to any overtures from the Ghilzai as the establishment of the Afghans in Persia was not in their interest.

With Ashraf Hotak becoming their sovereign, the Afghans were confident that his disposition, conduct and valour would enable them to overcome all their enemies. At about that time, Queen Catherine succeeded her husband, Peter the Great, and appeared resolved to annex portions of Persia. However, conquests by Russia on the shores of Caspian were no comparison to what had been planned by the Turks, who, having occupied the cities assigned to them by the partition treaty, called upon the Russian to aid them in expelling the Afghans from Persia. Ashraf had sent an ambassador to Constantinople. The Sultan ignored the voice of ulema who protested against leaguing up with a Christian power against the Muslims. They bitterly opposed making war upon a Sunni monarch for the purpose of restoring to power a dynasty of Shia princes. The ministers satisfied the ulema that the connection formed with Russia was dictated by necessity and that Ashraf had placed himself in the condition of an enemy by refusing to acknowledge the supremacy of the Turkish Sultan as religious head of all the Muslims; the war, however, remained unpopular. After the Ambassador of Ashraf had been dismissed from the Turkish capital, hostilities commenced and Ahmad Pasha, who had captured Margha and Kazwan , advanced towards Isfahan. Prince Dalgarouki commanded the Russian troops on the coast of Caspian. He made no movement to support the Turks and Tahmasp remained in Mazindaran, a neutral spectator of a contest for his dominions.

The first year of Ashraf's reign was spent in strengthening his internal government and in building a small square fort with lofty walls, defended by a bastion in the centre of the city of Isfahan. The fort was to harbour  the Afghan children and families. Its remains are still there and are referred to as the fort of Ashraf or 'Ashraf Teppeh'. On the arrival of Turkish army near his capital, he laid waste the country on the routes that the Turks were using. he advanced with all the force he could assemble to check their progress. Ahmad Pasha, the Ottoman commander set a message to Shah Ashraf, stating that the Afghans were a miserable and unworthy race who had unjustly deprived a legitimate ruler of his sovereignty and that he (Ahmad Pasha) was coming to reinstate Shah Hussain. The enraged Shah Ashraf Hotak killed Shah Sultan Hussein in the prison. He sent the severed head of Shah Hussain to Ahmad Pasha with the message that he would answer him with his sword.

Ahmad Pasha sent 6,000 of his men to reconnoiter the Afghan position. They were misled by a guide to Shah Ashraf's trap and killed to the last man. This success gave confidence to the Afghans and greatly discouraged the Turks who immediately halted and surrounded their camp with entrenchments. Ashraf took advantage of this lull period and sent Afghan religious scholars to the Turks. They pleaded that since the Afghans and Turks were all of Sunni faith, hence it was forbidden to shed blood of each other. With this articulate reasoning, they influenced the Kurds and some Turks. The Kurds took advantage of the resulting confusion and pillaged the Turkish camp which Ahmad Pasha hastily evacuated.  To quote Malcolm ;-

" The Afghan prince made every effort to persuade the Turkish soldiery that the war, in which they were engaged, was unlawful. His private emissaries were, at this period, most actively employed in disseminating these opinions and in corrupting the integrity of the Kurdish chiefs, who had joined the Ottomans, and to give more effect to these intrigues, he sent a deputation of four priests, who were alike venerable for their age and character, to Pasha's camp. When these holy men were introduced to the general, one of them exclaimed with a loud voice; "Our sovereign, Ashraf, bade me ask you, why you war upon Muhammadans, who have obeyed the divine precepts of the law in subverting the power of Persians. Why do you league with a Christian prince to deprive a follower of our holy prophet, of a kingdom to which he has, by all laws, human and divine, such just rights?......Before the conference had terminated, the call for prayer was heard and the venerable deputies of Ashraf joined with the Turkish officers in their devotion, which they concluded by repeating aloud an earnest petition to the Almighty, that he would turn the hearts of true believers from disunion and war and establish peace and harmony among those who truly served him."

After prayers, a large body of Kurds, accompanied by some Turks, followed the Afghan priests, declaring that they would not fight against the dictates of their conscience and the laws of their religion. Nevertheless, Ahmad Pasha, the Ottoman commander, attacked Ashraf. Ashraf though very inferior in point of numbers, did not refuse the challenge. Seventy thousand Turks marched out of the lines, supported by seventy pieces of artillery; whilst the Afghans mustered but thirty- three thousand, and forty Harquebus on camels. At six in the morning, the Turks began the contest, by opening a fire from ten guns. The Afghans returned these with five. Three several times the Serasker bravely charged them with his right wing, and was as often repulsed, though supported by a furious cannonade: and at three in the afternoon, was forced to retire to his entrenchments, after a loss of twelve thousand men. Ahmed retired during the night to Kermanshah, leaving his artillery and baggage in the hands of the conqueror. Hither Ashruf pursued him, on his approach Ahmed retreated on Baghdad.

Ashraf sent another deputation to his Ahmed Pasha with a message that he didnt deem the spoils he had taken from misguided Muslims as lawful and that as he considered himself a prince and not a robber, Ahmad Pasha might send for his treasures and property; everything belonging to him, or those under his command, except arms, would be returned. Ashraf, not only did what he promised but also released all the prisoners he had made during the war. By this wise step, he became so popular through the Ottoman dominions that the court of Constantinople was compelled to conclude a peace treaty which stipulated that Ashraf would acknowledge the Ottoman Sultan as the spiritual head of all the Muslims ; in return he was recognized as sovereign of Persia. The provinces, namely Kurdistan and Khuzistan, a part of Azerbaijan and several cities in Iraq, including Sultaniya and Tehran, the present capital of Iran which the Ottoman government possessed, were granted in perpetuity.





An Afghan Warrior, Tehran, 1848 by Jules Joseph Augustin



References:


1- Laurence Lockhart, "The fall of the Safavi Dynasty and and the Afghan occupation of Persia"
2- Malcolm, "The History of Persia" Volume-II
3- Tadeusz Jan KrusiƄski, "The Chronicles of a Traveller: Or, a History of the Afghan Wars With Persia"
3- Haroon Rashid, "The history of Pathans" Volume-III






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Ali Muhammad Khan Rohilla, the founder of the Indo-Afghan state of Rohilkhand




Mausoleum of Ali Muhammad Khan Rohilla, Aonla (U.P, India).